Imagine that one of your goals for the year is to run a marathon. Running 26.2 miles (42 km) is quite the challenge, and you’re feeling hesitant. You start to think of reasons why you can’t do it: you’re out of shape, you’re too busy to commit to months of training, and you’ve never done anything like this before.

What if you focused on the reasons why you can do it instead? You just watched your friend complete one last year, and he started off in a similar position to you, so what’s stopping you? You’re goal-oriented, you can be disciplined when you have your mind set on something, and with the right plan, you can get into shape. You start to believe in yourself and your ability to tackle the challenge, motivating you to sign up, buy good shoes, and find a training plan that works with your schedule. Three months later, you’re at the start line, confident that you’ll complete the race—and guess what? You do!

Self-efficacy, a person’s belief in their ability to achieve a goal, is an essential part of success. If you didn’t believe in yourself, it would be easy to hit snooze on your alarm when you were supposed to get up and go for a run, because what’s the point anyway? Believing in yourself positively impacts your motivation and behavior and makes you more likely to actually accomplish the goal. Albert Bandura, the social cognitive psychologist who defined self-efficacy, proposed four ways to achieve it:

• Performance accomplishments: Mastering one task strengthens our belief that we can complete other goals.
• Vicarious experience: Witnessing other people successfully complete a task makes us more likely to believe we can complete similar tasks.
• Verbal persuasion: When other people encourage us and tell us that we’re capable of taking on the challenge, we’re likely to start believing it.
• Physiological states: Our mood and emotional state can impact self-efficacy. If we’re experiencing high levels of stress or are feeling down, it’s hard to believe that we can succeed at reaching our goals.¹

Self-efficacy plays an important role in how we approach tasks, challenges, and goals, whether big or small, and can allow us to be more successful in school, work, and even relationships!²

Self-Esteem:  A person’s subjective evaluation of their value and worth. Someone with high self-esteem values themselves, which makes them feel more confident. Self-efficacy and self-esteem are correlated and impact one another. If you have high self-esteem, you’re more likely to believe in your ability to complete a task. Achieving a goal is also likely to boost your self-esteem. 

Motivation: The driving force behind our behavior. Being motivated makes us want to take the steps necessary to achieve a goal. Motivation can be intrinsic, where we are inspired from within (sometimes due to self-efficacy), or extrinsic, where external forces like rewards or encouragement from others inspire us to take action.⁴ 

Social Learning Theory: A psychological framework developed by psychologist Albert Bandura that describes how we learn behaviors and skills by observing and imitating others. It suggests that we don’t always learn by doing, but also by watching what others do. It contributes to self-efficacy as when we watch others complete a task, we learn how to imitate them to achieve the same goal and become more confident in our abilities.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: When your prediction about a future outcome impacts your behavior in a way that makes it more likely that the result will align with your prediction. It can have the opposite effect of self-efficacy, in a scenario where your belief that you will not succeed influences your behavior negatively and makes the perceived failure come true.⁵ For example, if you did not believe you’d get a job that you were interviewing for, you may not put in the effort to prep or polish your resume, which then results in a bad interview and being rejected.

Optimism Bias: A psychological bias where we tend to overestimate the likelihood of experiencing positive outcomes and underestimate the likelihood of negative outcomes. When we’re overly optimistic, we don’t consider our actual skills or what we may need to do to prepare, which can lead to failure. For example, if you are blindly optimistic that things will work out with your partner, you may not put in the effort required to sustain a healthy long-term relationship. Self-efficacy only works when it impacts the way we behave, motivating us to take the necessary steps for success.

In the early 20th century, behaviorism emerged as the dominant psychological framework, fueled by a push towards using more rigorous methods in psychology to boost its scientific credibility.⁶ Behaviorist frameworks focus on behavior that can be observed (and thus empirically studied) and how behavior can be learned through conditioning.⁷ However, this framework left little room for the role of internal mental states like beliefs, perceptions, or emotions. 

In the 1960s, a paradigm shift began towards cognitive psychology, which recognized the important role that mental processes have in shaping human behavior. It was during this time that Canadian-American cognitive psychologist Albert Bandura developed social learning theory, which suggests that people learn through observing and imitating others, and that our likelihood of repeating a behavior is impacted by cognitive factors like attention, attitudes, motivation, and emotions.⁸ Unlike classical conditioning, which focuses on external motivating factors for behavior, like rewards and punishments, social learning theory also incorporates the role of intrinsic motivation, like pride or a sense of accomplishment.

As not all observed behaviors are learned, Bandura was curious about what leads some people to successfully learn a behavior while others do not. In his 1977 paper “Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change,” Bandura outlined the role of self-efficacy, which he defined as “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations.” Bandura suggested that one’s expectation of the outcome can impact whether they successfully execute the behavior required to lead to that success.¹ People are not only more likely to engage in tasks and activities that they think they are capable of handling, but also more likely to succeed in them.

He proposed four sources that contribute to self-efficacy: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. He suggested that while many of these sources are external, the impact that they will have on self-efficacy depends on how the events and information are processed by an individual. If self-efficacy is low, it may not matter that someone encourages you or that you have already accomplished a similar task.¹

After Bandura’s foundational development of self-efficacy, researchers began to examine its role across critical domains like education, health, and the workplace. More than just a theory, it’s become a lens for understanding how belief drives behavior—and how small shifts in mindset can lead to lasting change.

Albert Bandura

A Canadian-American cognitive psychologist who is best known for developing social learning theory, which posits that we learn by observing and imitating others. His “Bobo Doll Experiment,” where children mimicked the aggressive behavior that researchers had demonstrated towards an inflatable clown, had a significant impact on our understanding of the danger of exposure to violence. He was one of the first psychologists to explore the role of self-efficacy in behavior, believing that it impacted whether observed behaviors were learned.⁹ 

Irwin Rosenstock

An American social psychologist who, along with colleagues working for the U.S. Public Health Service, developed the Health Belief Model. The model was developed to understand why people did not engage in preventative screening behaviors even when they were made accessible. The model showed how perceived severity, perceived susceptibility, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, and cues to action all impacted whether someone engaged in health behaviors. In 1998, Rosenstock added self-efficacy to the Health Belief Model.

Self-efficacy doesn’t just affect how we think—it powerfully shapes what we do. High self-efficacy can improve performance, resilience, and even health outcomes by influencing how we set goals, handle challenges, and take action toward success.

Improving Academic & Work Performance

Self-efficacy plays an important part in our ability to succeed at a task, whether that be acing an exam in school or a presentation for a client at work. Having the knowledge and skills required to be successful is not enough: we must be motivated to apply them to the task at hand by our belief that if we do, we will succeed. Self-efficacy increases our commitment to our goals and makes us more likely to adapt our behavior to achieve them.

Research has shown that self-efficacy may actually be a stronger determinant of academic performance than intelligence or previous performance.¹⁰ In 1994, Albert Bandura and psychologist Barry Zimmerman explored how self-efficacy influences academic performance in a college writing course. Ninety-five students were asked about their level of writing instruction, their confidence in their writing capabilities, their overall academic competence, and what goals they had for their writing. Bandura and Zimmerman found that students who believed in themselves were more likely to have ambitious goals and standards for their writing and had higher academic achievement in the course. The level of writing instruction that the students had received did not correlate with subsequent performance.¹¹

Building Resilience

Self-efficacy can also help us to be resilient and continue to work towards our goals even when we face obstacles or setbacks. As Albert Bandura explained, “After people become convinced they have what it takes to succeed, they persevere in the face of adversity and quickly rebound from setbacks. By sticking it out through tough times, they emerge stronger from adversity.”¹² Unlike general self-confidence and self-esteem, self-efficacy is centered around the belief that you can succeed in a particular task or goal, thus helping people understand what is within their control and take purposeful action. This sense of control motivates individuals to approach challenges with a problem-solving mindset, rather than feeling overwhelmed or helpless.

Studies have shown that children who report higher self-efficacy also report fewer depressive symptoms and dysfunctional thoughts.¹³ This suggests that self-efficacy not only changes how we behave, but also how we think and feel. A 1999 study involving 1,427 high school students examined whether self-efficacy could help adolescents be more resilient to traumatic events. They asked the students whether they had experienced either violent or nonviolent negative life events, ranging from physical assault to switching schools. The researchers found that adolescents who reported higher levels of self-efficacy (and who had strong support systems) were more likely to still see their health in a positive light even after trauma, as they reported fewer health-related issues.¹⁴ 

Improving Health Outcomes

According to the Health Belief Model developed in the 1950s, our perception of disease severity, personal susceptibility, and perceived benefits and barriers impact whether or not we will engage in health-related behaviors.¹⁵ In the 1980s, social psychologist Irwin M. Rosenstock added self-efficacy to the model. Even if someone believes a disease is a threat and that the intervention will have a positive impact, they won’t act unless they believe they are capable of following through. When people believe they will be able to complete the treatment, they are more likely to start it, which makes self-efficacy a crucial piece of the model.¹⁶ 

Having strong self-efficacy is likely challenging for individuals with chronic diseases, who, despite their best efforts to manage their condition, experience flare-ups and setbacks. However, a 2019 study showed that individuals with high self-efficacy have a higher quality of life even when they are living with two or more chronic health conditions.¹⁷ Since self-efficacy is an important factor in improving health outcomes, it can inform interventions. A literature review found that the three biggest barriers for self-efficacy in patients with chronic health conditions were health literacy, access, and support, insights which inspired the development of strategies to develop self-efficacy, including self-management programs, telehealth, mobile applications, and social media campaigns.¹⁸ 

While self-efficacy is widely recognized for its impact on success, some scholars argue that its role is more complex than initially thought, and may ignore societal factors that contribute to whether or not an individual can accomplish their goal. 

Optimism Bias

While it is generally agreed upon that our belief in our capabilities impacts our success, the optimism bias suggests that when misguided, our optimism can actually hinder our performance. Our tendency to be over-optimistic leads us to believe that positive outcomes will happen to us, sometimes regardless of whether we take the necessary steps towards those outcomes.

For example, imagine that your boss has asked you to make some updates to the company website. You’re great at writing code, so you assume it will all go smoothly and leave it to the last minute. You don’t even bother to test the updates before launching, confident that things will work out. However, soon after going live, your company receives multiple complaints from users about broken links. Your optimism bias, coupled with your belief in your coding capabilities, has led to complacency, poor preparation, and ultimately, failure.

It seems that self-efficacy will only contribute to success if it positively impacts your behavior.  If it motivates you to work hard, then it is likely you will achieve your goals. However, if it leads you to take a backseat and expect good things to just come your way, it may act as an obstacle. 

Over-Emphasis on the Individual

Self-efficacy is about one’s own belief in their capabilities, but does this over-emphasize the individual? While there are things within our control, there are many systematic and environmental constraints that cannot be changed through mere willpower or confidence. 

For example, in the previously mentioned study that found a positive correlation between adolescents’ self-efficacy and reported health for individuals who had experienced a traumatic event, the researchers also found that female and African-American high school students had worse health assessments compared to white and male counterparts. Even if one believes in their ability to overcome a traumatic experience, there are systemic inequalities that can negatively impact their health. While believing in one’s ability to cope with trauma is important, it does not exist in a vacuum. Racial, gender, and socioeconomic factors create additional layers of challenge that can undermine the positive effects of self-efficacy. For example, research has shown that African-Americans are less likely to have their pain believed, which can prevent them from accessing necessary treatment.¹⁹ 

Correlation Vs Causation

In Albert Bandura’s definition of self-efficacy, there are four contributing factors: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Despite tons of research showing the positive correlation between self-efficacy and outcomes, it’s difficult to understand the complex interplay of various factors. 

Additionally, self-efficacy is thought to increase motivation, but could measurements of self-efficacy actually just be measuring motivation? When someone indicates “Yes, I can do that,” do they actually mean “Yes, I want to do that”? In a series of studies, researchers asked participants to rate their exercise self-efficacy in two different conditions. In the first, they were asked to rate their confidence in their capabilities with standard phrasing such as “How confident are you that you will be able to exercise this week?” In the second condition, researchers added “if you really wanted to” at the end of the question, which was used to suggest motivation would be held at a constant, isolating perceived capability. They found that self-efficacy was rated higher in the second condition, suggesting that motivation is thought to improve one’s belief in their capabilities, and not the other way around.²⁰ 

Cultural Norms & Self-Efficacy

Although self-efficacy is rooted in what an individual believes they can accomplish, it is often shaped by societal expectations, cultural norms, and gender roles. Self-efficacy is often studied in health behavior research to understand its role in preventative health measures, but most research is informed by white, middle-class populations, where it is assumed that, given the right information, people will perform a recommended health practice. However, self-efficacy may not be powerful enough for low-income, minority groups to overcome barriers to health interventions.

To gain a better understanding of the different experiences and perceptions of self-efficacy within minority groups, researchers conducted interviews with Latina and Filipina women in the U.S., exploring the role that self-efficacy plays as a predictor and explanation for health behavior.

In interviews, they found that many women were more likely to have strong self-efficacy for gendered and culturally informed tasks, such as family and domestic life, including confidence that they will ensure their children have access to and participate in health-related behaviors. However, this causes them to put their own needs last, preventing them from seeking out educational or health services. Their lack of self-efficacy may come from juggling multiple responsibilities they deem more important. 

The researchers also found that women who had a strong social network showed increased self-efficacy for accessing the healthcare system. Due to cultural differences, sometimes including language barriers, women who had a connection with someone who had experience with the system acted as a form of social capital, which was seen as a crucial component of self-efficacy for immigrant women. The researchers concluded that “confidence was often established through relationships and connections with others rather than an individually acquired and assessed attribute.” This shows that different cultural and gender norms can influence what contributes to self-efficacy and can be used to inform interventions targeted at specific groups.²¹ 

Importance of Management Support for Self-Efficacy In The Workplace

It is assumed that self-efficacy in the workplace improves the organization, as workers with high self-efficacy are more likely to complete their duties and overcome challenges they face, but it can also improve one’s perception of the quality of their work life. Researchers from the University of Baghdad wanted to see how self-efficacy contributes to the quality of work life for workers at an oil company.

The researchers looked at three subdimensions of self-efficacy that are important at the workplace: social, emotional, and cognitive. Social self-efficacy is one’s belief that they can make and maintain personal relationships at work, emotional self-efficacy is a person’s belief that they can handle emotional information in an appropriate way, and cognitive self-efficacy refers to one’s confidence in their ability to think through problems and make decisions. 

By surveying workers at the oil company, they found that all three subdimensions of self-efficacy had a positive correlation with the perceived quality of work life: employees who rated high self-efficacy were also happier with their work life. In analyzing survey responses, the researchers found that emotional self-efficacy was the most important subdimension affecting the quality of work life.

Additionally, the researchers found that organizational factors, like poor culture and lack of participation in decision-making, were weakening self-efficacy. Workers felt that their relationships with senior management were formal and administratively routine, demonstrating a lack of trust, which negatively impacts the ability to turn self-efficacy into success. If the workplace blocks employees from acting on their abilities, self-efficacy loses power. Workers felt that senior management focused solely on results and not the human side of work, diminishing their self-efficacy.²² 

This study shows the importance of verbal persuasion, or encouragement, for self-efficacy, to allow workers’ confidence and capabilities to translate into meaningful success.

Gender and Self-Perception in Competition

Significant research has shown that gender can have an impact on self-efficacy. You may have heard the anecdote that men are much more likely to apply for a job for which they are unqualified compared to women. Societal norms and treatment of women can lead them to have a lower self-perception of intelligence. In this article, our writer Andrew Lewis explores the role of gender in self-efficacy, with particular attention to how it impacts our behavior in competition. 

Do High-Potential Employee Programs Work?

One aspect that contributes to self-efficacy is verbal persuasion and encouragement. When other people believe in us, we are more likely to believe in our capabilities as well. However, the opposite can also be true—when people don’t believe in us, it might impact how hard we work to achieve our goals. In this article, our writers Zad El-Makkaoui and Natasha Ouslis discuss how high-potential employee programs can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, with people recognized to have potential to improve their performance receiving preferential treatment, which causes them to achieve better opportunities and promotions.

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