Stoicism is an ancient philosophy movement that first emerged during the Hellenistic period (323 BC to 31 BC).⁴ Stoicism is part of a larger framework of practical philosophical theories that suggest philosophy is a way of living a virtuous life, not just an academic discipline, and that philosophy is the only pursuit that actually matters in the grand scheme of things. The little things that occupy people’s daily lives are irrelevant to our happiness. According to stoicism, wealth, reputation, or enjoyment do not actually contribute to a happy life; similarly, illness, poverty, or pain do not detract from a happy life.¹ Only what makes us virtuous makes us happy, while vice is the thief of our happiness.

Though unfamiliar today, stoic philosophy was still popular during Aurelius’s time. Aurelius recognized that it was not easy to live one’s life as a philosopher, as it required a great deal of dedication, but believed that it was a worthy pursuit. Like many stoic philosophers, Aurelius had a binary view of good and evil, which is to say it was very black and white. What was virtuous was anything that made someone just, temperate, courageous, and free, and what was bad were things that made them the contrary.¹ What allowed someone to have those virtuous characteristics was their pursuit of philosophy in both a practical and philosophical way, which would enable them to live in agreement with nature. That is because pursuing philosophy helped people understand the ‘true’ nature of things - a common example is philosophy’s inquiry into what a soul is.

Since things like pain and pleasure do not influence our happiness, Aurelius suggested that people needed to reframe their thoughts surrounding what is ‘good’ or ‘bad’. If it doesn’t contribute to overall happiness, it is neither good nor bad. He writes in Meditations, “if you are distressed by anything external, the pain is not due to the thing itself, but to your estimate of it; and this you have the power to revoke at any moment.”³

Aurelius believed that people should stop focusing on these things and instead examine whether their actions are contributing to one’s own virtue. An action is virtuous when it is done because of understanding, which is where philosophy as a way of life comes in.¹ Philosophy gives someone a stable cognitive state that allows them to see what is just and virtuous and act accordingly. Philosophy enables someone to be rational, which for stoicism, is to live in accordance with nature. 

The Role of Action and Rationality in Virtue

Following the practical nature of stoicism, Aurelius acknowledged that true virtue is demonstrated through action.⁹ He wrote that the object of life is not to simply discuss the idea of living virtuously—which often involves arguing how one should live and judging others for their faults—but to exhibit these virtues through our own behaviors. For him, stoicism was a practical philosophy meant to be lived, not just discussed.

To act virtuously means to act in a way consistent with reason. Then as now, rationality was seen as a crucial tool for understanding the world and making ethical choices. Stoicism posits that the fully virtuous person acts in accordance with nature and avoids behaviors that go against it, suggesting that appropriate actions are those we can reasonably justify based on a true understanding of the world—not based on a biased understanding of reality.³ This idea is core to stoic thought. Stoics believe that reason and a clear perception of reality are necessary for performing ethical and moral actions.

Modern Insights

Exploring stoicism from the modern perspective of behavioral science shines some more light on these ideas and how they may be beneficial today. Aurelius was keenly aware of the distorted thinking patterns that can lead us away from the perfect rationality strived for by the stoics, though he didn’t refer to these as cognitive biases—this term was developed much later. In the 1970s, behavioral scientists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman gave a name to these systematic errors in thinking, and the field of psychology and behavioral science began exploring how each bias uniquely affects our decision-making. Many of the exercises and practices advocated by Aurelius can still be highly beneficial for mitigating these biases today.

Aurelius’ approach of self-awareness and inner discipline is crucial for becoming conscious of our automatic biases to reduce their influence. Of course, this approach only works to improve our own behavior. Aurelius spent little time concerning himself with the decisions of other people, arguing that the best way to influence others is to live virtuously. He wrote, “Whenever you are about to find fault with someone, ask yourself the following question: What fault of mine most nearly resembles the one I am about to criticize?” ³ In contrast to this focus on individual self-improvement, modern behavioral science has allowed us to take a broader approach, encouraging better decision-making among larger populations. Behavioral interventions—such as framing and nudging strategies—can effectively counteract biases and encourage people to make decisions that are better for themselves and the common good.

What about those things we can’t change? Amazingly, modern psychology mirrors many of the exercises Aurelius used for coping with challenging external events. The therapeutic approach of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), for example, focuses on shifting our reactions to events rather than trying to change what we cannot control. Mindfulness therapy also shares components of stoicism, encouraging people to develop an awareness of their inner consciousness and focus on the present moment rather than exterior obstacles.

One reason why Aurelius's stoic advice focused on changing one’s mindset is that although we cannot always control what happens to us, we can control how we feel about it and how we react to it. As he writes in Meditations, “you have power over your mind - not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.”³ He further elaborates that “the happiness of your life depends upon the quality of your thoughts.”

The idea that happiness is a mindset rather than something acquired through wealth, pleasure, or material things is supported by the hedonic treadmill. The hedonic treadmill suggests that our happiness levels tend to remain at a relatively neutral level because we quickly adapt to events that make us happy or things that make us sad. The hedonic treadmill stipulates that something we think might make us happy (like buying a new car) will only make us happier for a fleeting moment, and that similarly, something we think might make us sad - like receiving a bad grade - will only make us upset for a short amount of time.

Aurelius would say that our happiness tends to be indifferent to these things, as only being virtuous can truly contribute to lasting happiness. Being a good person is under our own control, so we should focus on that endeavor. We must turn inwards, to our souls, or to our “inner citadel” as he called it in Meditations. Living from this space will give someone a sense of peace and freedom as they will realize they have the freedom to shape their life by being in control of their thoughts.²

Life is bound to throw challenges your way, but how you respond to those challenges is what will determine whether you are a happy person. Aurelius argued that it's not enough for philosophers to understand how nature works. They must also desire to live in harmony with nature, seeing and knowing things for what they are and aligning with this natural order. He said to “dwell on the beauty of life,” accepting what we cannot control and appreciating the cosmic nature that surrounds us rather than trying to bend the world to our whims.³ 

Aurelius suggested that obstacles actually provide us with the greatest opportunity to practice our virtue, as they test our patience and give us an opportunity to respond in a positive way.5 He wrote, “what stands in the way becomes the way.”² It is by turning inwards and not allowing these adversities to get to you that allows one to be stoic. The way that other people behave or treat you is out of your control, but if you are at peace with yourself, these people shouldn’t negatively impact you.

Aurelius also suggested that we should focus on the virtues that we already have; we might not embody every single positive characteristic, but we shouldn’t be overly critical of ourselves for what we don’t have. We should focus on the virtues we do have and ensure to practice those.⁶

Focusing on what we do have is another practice that Aurelius was adamant about. He wrote in Meditations, “when you arise in the morning think of what a privilege it is to be alive, to think, to enjoy, to love.”³ Instead of worrying about things that could go wrong, or things we don’t have, we should be in the present moment and enjoy what life has to offer. He suggested that if we did everything as if it was the last thing we would do in our lives, we would find it easier not to let emotions cloud our rationality.⁶

Many people are surprised to learn that Meditations was a private work that Aurelius never intended to publish. His writings were simply a series of personal thoughts (written in private journals to himself) as reminders of how to maintain a stoic perspective. He also included exercises to help him translate these ideas into a virtuous behavior. In short, he was encouraging himself to live a noble life and contribute to the common good.³ This is what makes his work so insightful; it’s not written for an audience or attempting to argue a point to the reader, but as a personal guide for Aurelius himself. It’s also deeply relatable—the entries reveal his own struggles to live as a philosopher and adhere to the stoic mindset. He discusses common challenges many of us can relate to today, even millennia after the work was written, such as managing negative emotions, dealing with difficult people, coping with adversity, and finding meaning in life.

Aurelius was heavily inspired by the ancient philosopher Epictetus. The Discourses of Epictetus laid the groundwork for his own thinking, and he quoted the work several times in his own writings.⁹ Like Aurelius, Epictetus believed in practical philosophy. He even encouraged apprentice philosophers to undergo training to learn how they might turn philosophical principles into action. According to him, this practice was essential for becoming the stoic ideal of the rare “wise person.”

Following suit, Aurelius came up with several philosophical exercises intended to create new, habitual ways of thinking and ultimately transform his behavior. He went beyond merely devising an epistemological theory or doctrine by actually engaging in practical thought exercises to put his theories into practice. This is one of the major contributions of Meditations to the field of philosophy, as many other philosophical works focus on making arguments rather than offering methods for applying them. The practical exercises in the work also make it particularly approachable for people interested in applying stoicism to their own lives.

Noble Lineage and Early Education

Marcus Aurelius (in full, Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus) was born on April 26, 121 AD, in Rome.⁷ His family was very prestigious: his grandfather was the consul and prefect of Rome, his aunt was married to a man who was to be the next emperor, and his grandmother was set to inherit a fortune from her wealthy family.⁷ Aurelius was well set up for his life as an influential and powerful man, although his path towards becoming emperor was based more on luck than anything else. His succession was ultimately determined by a series of deaths and adoptions.

In 136 AD, the reigning emperor of Rome, Hadrian, announced Lucius Ceionius Commodus (later known as Lucius Aelius Caesar) as his successor. The same year, Aurelius got engaged to Ceionia Fabia, the daughter of this new successor. However, a couple of years later, Lucius Aelius died, and his daughter’s engagement was called off. This created an opening in the succession plan. Hadrian had to name another successor, and this time, he chose Aurelius's aunt’s husband, Titus Aurelius Antoninus (who would become Antoninus Pius). As part of the succession agreement, Antoninus was to adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (son of the late Lucius Aelius) as his sons and heirs. The two adoptees would eventually succeed Antoninus Pius and become joint emperors.⁷ 

At the age of 17, Marcus Aurelius was destined to become emperor but had a long time to wait until Antoninus Pius would hand over the reins—23 years, to be exact. During this time, Aurelius became interested in stoic philosophy thanks to his teacher, Fronto, who was the main society literary figure of his age. Aurelius would maintain a close friendship with his teacher Fronto throughout his lifetime, and the letters between the two are the only surviving love letters (it is unknown whether they were love letters in a romantic sense) from antiquity.⁸

Aurelius was particularly taken by Epictetus after a friend recommended his work.1 Epictetus’ writing influenced Aurelius to commit a lifetime to pursue philosophical endeavors. Simultaneously, he was Titus’ apprentice and was learning the business and governmental side of things to prepare him to become emperor.⁷ Although Aurelius does not thank him directly in Meditations, it is likely that Seneca, a prominent stoic philosopher, would have also influenced Aurelius.

Reign as Emperor of Rome

Aurelius married his cousin Annia Galeria Faustina in 145 AD (this was common practice in ancient Rome). He was also given the responsibilities of consul alongside his adopted brother. In 161, Antoninus Pius died, making Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus co-emperors. It was the first time that Rome had co-emperors, although this joint reign was cut short when Lucius Verus died eight years later.⁶ After this, Marcus Aurelius continued to reign as sole emperor of Rome until his death in 180 AD.

Aurelius’s reign was marked by significant military conflict, as Rome experienced attacks from Germany, rebellions in Italy and Egypt, as well as by a plague that swept Italy and took many lives.¹ Understandably, he didn’t have much time to make significant shifts in public policy during his 19 years in power. His work primarily involved refining existing laws and improving how they impacted vulnerable groups like widows, minors, and slaves.⁷ He wasn’t seen as a transformative or radical ruler. Rather, he was diligently focused on continuing what his predecessors had started.

This measured approach extended to how he handled religious matters as well. Though Aurelius was often accused of Christian persecution during his reign, these actions were not a result of his direct command. Persecutions did happen under his rule—occurring sporadically throughout the Roman Empire—but there is no evidence to suggest that he promoted or ordered them. Some writers of this period emphasize that although Aurelius acknowledged that Christians were legally punishable, he did not actively seek them out for persecution.¹⁰ In fact, there is also some evidence that he argued against harsh punishments for Christians.

Despite all these hardships, Aurelius’s pursuit of stoicism allowed him not to let these terrible events impact his inner peace. In fact, it is believed that many of the notes that later were published in Meditations were written while Aurelius was organizing military campaigns.¹

Even with all the chaos and hardship Aurelius faced during his time as emperor, he is considered the last of the “Five Good Emperors”. While the five good emperors reigned, Rome enjoyed absolute power and was guided by virtue. The five good emperors had become emperors due to appointed succession rather than by birthright, which might have pushed them to want to prove themselves as virtuous leaders.⁶ Aurelius’s successor did not follow suit; when he died in 180, one of his sons, Commodus, became emperor. Commodus’s reign marks the end of Rome’s golden era, as although he maintained a level of peace in Rome, his own behavior did not follow the same virtuous principles that his father had maintained.⁷

For Aurelius, the stoic philosopher, “perfection of character is this: to live each day as if it were your last, without frenzy, without apathy, without pretense.” He urges us to “remember that very little is needed to make a happy life.”³

Aurelius always professed that people should only concern themselves with what they can control. This philosophy means that other people’s behavior should not cause you to deviate from your virtuous path. He wrote, “when you wake up in the morning, tell yourself: the people I deal with today will be meddling, ungrateful, arrogant, dishonest, jealous and surly. They are like this because they can’t tell good from evil. But I have seen the beauty of good, and the ugliness of evil, and have recognized that the wrongdoer has a nature related to my own - not of the same blood and birth, but the same mind, and possessing a share of the divine. And so none of them can hurt me. No one can implicate me in ugliness.”³

He believed that people’s criticisms of you say more about the kind of person that they are than the kind of person you are. He states in Meditations, “when another blames you or hates you, or people voice similar criticisms, go to their souls, penetrate inside and see what sort of people they are. You will realize that there is no need to be racked with anxiety that they should hold any particular opinion about you.”³

Aurelius also believed that people should focus on the present. He advises, “do not act as if you were going to live ten thousand years. Death hangs over you. While you live, while it is in your power, be good.” The future is something outside of our control, so we shouldn’t worry about it. As he states, “there is never any need to get worked up or to trouble your soul about things you can’t control. These things are not asking to be judged by you. Leave them alone.”³

Focusing on the present also allows you to focus on what you do have. He wrote, “do not indulge in dreams of having what you have not, but reckon up the chief of the blessings you do possess, and then thankfully remember how you would crave for them if they were not yours.”³

Ultimately, he urged people to just be good. He wrote in Meditations, “do the right thing. The rest doesn’t matter. Cold or warm. Tired or well-rested. Despised or honored. Dying… or busy with other assignments… Look inward. Don’t let the true nature of anything elude you… when jarred, unavoidably, by circumstances, revert at once to yourself, and don’t lose the rhythm more than you can help. You’ll have a better grasp of the harmony if you keep going back to it.”³

Meditations is Aurelius’s only known published work. Split into twelve parts, the text incorporates Aurelius’s personal notes and scribbles. A physical copy can be purchased here, or you can listen to an audiobook.

You can also listen to The History of Philosophy’s podcast episode about Aurelius, titled “The Philosopher King: Marcus Aurelius”. The podcast hosts explore Aurelius's life as well as his stoic philosophy. Another podcast dedicated to discussing all matters of stoicism, The Daily Stoic, also has an episode that revolves around Aurelius. Lastly, BBC’s podcast host Melvyn Bragg talks about Aurelius's life and philosophies with guests in this podcast. 

A number of books have also been written about Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed by William Stephens provides an introduction to Aurelius suitable for those not well-versed in philosophy. After getting a grasp on the basics, you might turn to Pierre Hadot’s The Inner Citadel: The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius, a book that uncovers deeper hidden meanings from Aurelius's Meditations. If you are more interested in who Aurelius the man was, you might want to check out Anthony Birley’s biography.

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2. Marcus Aurelius: Debts and lessons. (2019, November 9). Farnam Street. https://fs.blog/2014/08/marcus-aurelius-debts-and-lessons/
3. Marcus Aurelius Quotes. (n.d.). Goodreads. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/17212.Marcus_Aurelius
4. Baltzly, D. (2018, April 10). Stoicism. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stoicism/#Phil
5. Gregoire, C. (2014, March 29). Marcus Aurelius and the Key to Happiness. DailyGood: News That Inspires. https://www.dailygood.org/story/680/marcus-aurelius-and-the-key-to-happiness/
6. Holiday, R., & Hanselman, S. (2020, August 31). Who Is Marcus Aurelius? Getting To Know The Roman Emperor. Daily Stoic. https://dailystoic.com/marcus-aurelius/
7. Crook, J. A. (1998, July 20). Marcus Aurelius. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marcus-Aurelius-Roman-emperor
8. Marcus Aurelius. (2001, October 2). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius#Legacy_and_reputation
9. Sellars, J. (n.d.). Marcus Aurelius. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved November 6, 2024, from https://iep.utm.edu/marcus-aurelius/
10. Keresztes, P. (1968). Marcus Aurelius a Persecutor? Harvard Theological Review, 61(3), 321–341. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0017816000029230