Imagine you are watching the news when a segment about a politician running for reelection comes on TV. In the advertisement, you learn that since they have been in office, unemployment has decreased by 10%, crime has dropped 20%, and the national debt has been reduced. After hearing all these positive claims, your vote is almost swayed, but before making your decision, you decide to talk to some friends and conduct independent research.

Upon further investigation, you learn that while unemployment rates have decreased, it’s largely driven by discouraged workers in a tight and challenging market who are no longer looking for employment. Because they are not actively searching for jobs, they do not count as “unemployed.” While crime rates have gone down, it’s primarily because of policies enacted by the previous administration, which this candidate can’t take credit for. Although the national debt has been reduced, it’s because the politician cut funding for essential services like healthcare and education. You’re glad you did your research, as otherwise, you may have been influenced by propaganda. 

Propaganda is a communication tactic where people share biased views or misleading information with the aim of swaying public beliefs. Although what the politician shared was not an outright lie, it didn’t tell the full story. Propaganda is used to influence people’s opinions to encourage them to behave in a certain way and make decisions that align with the person, party, or company driving the communication.¹ While effective, it’s a manipulation tactic to push a particular agenda that often involves half-truths, rumors, or lies, which is why it’s important to be aware of how these messages might influence you.²

Misinformation: The unintentional spread of inaccurate information. In the case of misinformation, people may not intend to mislead the public but simply be unaware that the information is false. People often believe propaganda and may pass on the information, believing it is accurate.⁴

Disinformation: The intentional spread of inaccurate information. This is sometimes also known as “fake news.” For disinformation, the messenger is deliberately trying to mislead people to influence their opinions or actions. Propaganda sometimes leverages disinformation, especially when trying to arouse fear in people.⁴

Fear Mongering: A form of propaganda and manipulation that purposefully arouses fear to influence people to behave a particular way. For example, Donald Trump has recently positioned free trade as a threat to Americans (both posing it as a security threat at the borders and suggesting that it puts American jobs at risk) in order to gain support for tariffs and other economic measures.⁵

Framing: A psychological phenomenon where the way that information is presented influences how we perceive and respond to it. It is a propaganda technique often used in advertising. One type of framing is scarcity framing, suggesting there is limited availability of a product, to increase demand and pressure people to make quick purchases.

Bandwagon Effect: Our tendency to adopt behaviors or beliefs because we see or believe other people are as well. We may decide to cheer for a team or vote for a political candidate because people in our social group support them, without critically thinking whether it is the right choice for us.

After the invention of the printing press in the 15th century, leaders were able to spread their ideas to the masses. This tactic was used by Queen Elizabeth I of England and King Philip II of Spain during the Spanish Armada in the 16th century, with each leader trying to convince their people that the other nation was the antagonist.

The term propaganda first appeared in the early 17th century in a Roman Catholic guide for missionary work entitled: “Congregation de Propaganda Fide.” In this context, the term had a positive connotation, simply meaning the promotion of the Catholic faith.²

Propaganda was popularized during World War I, where it took on its negative and political connotations. The global nature of the war required that all members of a nation be supportive and involved, requiring convincing messaging to get people on board. Propaganda was disseminated through pamphlets, posters, short films, and door-to-door campaigning.⁶ It was used not only to recruit people to join the war efforts but also to dehumanize the opposition and thus justify the war. For example, one U.S. poster depicted Germany as a crazed gorilla carrying a bloody club and a woman’s limp body, to inspire enlistment in the military.

One of the most infamous figures of propaganda was Adolf Hitler. During the Holocaust, he established a Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, with the aim of successfully disseminating the Nazi ideology through art, music, books, and radio. This agenda sought to dehumanize Jewish people, gain political loyalty from Germans, and convince other European powers that Germany’s demands were reasonable.⁷ Hitler understood the power of propaganda in shaping (and distorting) public perception, once saying, “Through clever and constant application of propaganda, people can be made to see paradise as hell, and also the other way around, to consider the most wretched sort of life as paradise.”⁸

When World War II began, propaganda was once again a powerful tool to rally public support. One of the most famous examples was the “Rosie the Riveter” poster, which influenced the public to believe that a woman could work outside of the house and support the war through machine production. This was necessary as men were abroad fighting the war, and from 1940 to 1945, the female workforce in the U.S. grew from 27% to 37%.⁹

Since 2010, social media has exponentially increased the reach of propaganda. Leaders use social media campaigns and even bots to amplify particular information streams during key events. We are living in a dangerous era of  “fake news,” where misinformation and propaganda can spread rapidly, as they did during the periods leading up to both of Donald Trump’s elections. The extent to which public opinion is being manipulated has led to polarization.¹⁰ 

Artificial intelligence has made it more difficult to know what is real or fake due to the generation of synthetic news articles or fake videos (you may have seen the viral deepfake video of Donald Trump kissing Elon Musk’s feet). This disinformation is also causing a widespread decline of trust in the media, with people gaining awareness of the techniques being used against them, but this also makes it difficult to spread important information. Young people are particularly susceptible to propaganda on social media, as digital technology is a large part of their everyday life. This has led some platforms, such as Twitter, to ban political ads.¹¹ 

Adolf Hitler

Infamous dictator of Nazi Germany whose regime was defined by an agenda of territorial expansion and racial supremacy, which led to the systematic killing of millions of Jewish people during the Holocaust. Hitler was put in charge of the German Workers’ Party propaganda in 1920, which marked the start of his rise to political dominance, paving the way for him to become the leader in 1921.¹² Part of Hitler’s rapid ascendancy can be attributed to his expert use of propaganda, using art, music, radio and educational materials to disseminate his anti-Jewish campaigns and exaggerate the threat of other nations like Czechoslovakia and Poland to gain support for invasion.⁷ 

Donald Trump

The 45th and 47th president of the United States who has dominated public discourse and media coverage since the start of his political career, whether for positive or negative reasons. His campaigns have been marked by the strategic use of propaganda techniques to rally supporters, discredit opponents (for example, calling Joe Biden, the 46th president of the United States, “Sleepy Joe”), and control political narratives. While many former presidents and political leaders have used propaganda to gain support for their regimes, Trump’s open and persistent use of social media is relatively unprecedented. By bypassing traditional media channels, he has been able to communicate directly with his supporters, reinforcing his messaging without the filter of journalists or fact-checkers.¹³

Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky

Authors of the book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, a text that explores the role that mass media plays in propaganda, reinforcing the agenda of ruling or elite powers. Together, they both accused the U.S. of being complicit in mass media propaganda.¹⁴ Herman was an American economist and dedicated a great portion of his career to criticizing U.S. mass media. Chomsky is an American professor known for his work in political activism and linguistics, particularly looking at how language can be used to influence public opinion.¹⁵

Propaganda is a powerful tool for shaping public perception, often distorting reality to serve political, commercial, or ideological interests. It can manipulate emotions, spread misinformation, and drive people to act in ways that may not align with their best interests. While it can sometimes be used for positive change, its history is filled with examples of deception and control.

War & Politics

In their 1988 book, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media, Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky explore how mass media is used to share social values and accepted codes of behavior. The “mainstream bias” describes the tendency for outlets to report on the same stories as other outlets and avoid narratives that may offend those in power, further spreading their agenda and ideologies, and filtering out opposing views. In recent years, more attention has been paid to the biased nature of mass media.¹⁶

As we’ve seen, during wartime or important political events, leaders will use propaganda to gain support. Political figures will often use name-calling to diminish the authority of opponents (there’s even a Wikipedia page dedicated to all the insulting nicknames that Donald Trump has used).

In war, fear mongering is a popular technique that requires four elements: exaggerating a perceived threat, providing a recommended action, suggesting the audience is capable of taking the action, and suggesting the action will diminish the threat.¹⁷ This was a technique used by George Bush in the early 2000s to gain support for using military force in Iraq.

For a year before the war, Bush and his administration emphasized the threat of Iraq and their dictator, Saddam Hussein, claiming the nation had “weapons of mass destruction,” and suggesting the U.S. could prevent them from being deployed if they acted now. Americans were led to believe that supporting the war effort was essential for their safety, as it would eliminate the weapons and weaken terrorism. While Bush was convincing enough to gain support for the war, which began in March 2003, retrospectively, the war is not believed to have been worth fighting, with 62% of adults in 2019 making this claim. In hindsight, it seems Americans fell victim to the power of propaganda.¹⁸

Health Epidemics

Propaganda and misinformation are often disseminated during epidemics, impacting public perception and subsequent behavior. At times, propaganda can be a tool that governments and health organizations use to encourage protective behaviors. During the COVID-19 pandemic, governments emphasized the threat of COVID-19, with constant news reports divulging the number of cases and showing videos of overflowing hospitals.¹⁹

However, other people used propaganda to discourage people from engaging in healthy behaviors. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was also a huge anti-vaccine movement, with disinformation being spread online that made claims that the vaccine would have negative side effects or that the government was putting trackers into people. The sheer volume of disinformation being spread during such a crucial time caused the World Health Organization to coin the phrase infodemic: misinformation in digital and physical environments during a disease outbreak that causes confusion and mistrust in health authorities, ultimately undermining public health behaviors.²⁰

Advertising

Although propaganda is usually discussed regarding political persuasion, many companies also use propaganda as a persuasive technique to influence people to purchase their product or service. Advertisements can mislead consumers by using half-truths to convince them that their product is superior, will result in positive outcomes, or will help them to avoid negative outcomes.¹

A popular propaganda technique used in advertising is the appeal to authority bias. The authority bias suggests that we are more influenced by opinions of authority figures, making us more likely to accept the information as truth. For example, many toothpaste advertisements will use propaganda like “4 in 5 dentists recommend this toothpaste.” The underlying message is that if experts in the field all agree (except for that one dissenting dentist), you should listen. Even if the toothpaste company has polled dentists, there isn’t enough information for us to blindly accept this as truth. We don’t know how the study was conducted, how many dentists were sampled, or whether these dentists were biased due to brand deals.

While propaganda contributes to the spread of misinformation, manipulating people’s perception and influencing their behaviors, at times, it can be a necessary communication strategy. When used for social good, or to raise awareness of important issues, it can unify people, mobilize communities, and promote positive behaviors.

Persuasion vs Manipulation

While propaganda usually comes with negative connotations, other people believe it is just a strategic persuasion technique that is not inherently manipulative. The motive of the person, government, or institution may be what causes propaganda to be negative, rather than the tactic itself.²¹ 

Many advertisements use framing to present information in a way that’s more appealing to consumers. For example, they may label a tub of yogurt “95% fat-free” instead of  “5% fat.” Although the nutrition facts remain the same on both labels, emphasizing the health benefits on the first will better resonate with consumers. While it is a persuasive technique, it would be a stretch to call it deceitful. Whether propaganda is manipulative may depend on the level of truth in the message—if we stick to the facts, it can be seen as strategic communication rather than deception.

Using Propaganda for Social Good

The purpose of propaganda is to promote certain ideas and behaviors, and at times, governments and institutions will use it to harness social good. People are susceptible to being influenced, and in a world where there is so much misinformation and fake news, it may be necessary to use propaganda to increase positive behaviors.

Health institutions and governments often use propaganda to encourage healthy habits. Consider the graphic images that accompany a pack of cigarettes—these are extreme versions of the dangers of smoking that are used to deter people. 

If we consider the Rosie the Riveter propaganda poster, we can also see how governments use propaganda in positive ways. While the government may have been using the poster to promote its own agenda, it also empowered women through the depiction of a strong woman supporting war efforts. More women entered the workforce, challenging gender norms and paving the way for equality. This demonstrates how propaganda can serve both state interests and social progress, depending on how it is framed and received by the public.

Grassroots Propaganda

In the past, when governments had greater control over the press and mainstream media, propaganda mainly came from leaders to promote a particular ideal or regime. However, social media has allowed for grassroots propaganda, dismantling the top-down approach. Anyone can share their ideas online, using propaganda techniques to dominate public discourse. Although political figures can still use social media to manipulate public opinion (one recent study found that 76 countries worldwide used disinformation and organized social media manipulation as part of their campaign), the public can also share their ideas.²²

The Black Lives Matter movement is an example of how activists protested against racism and discrimination perpetuated by police officers. The slogan and hashtag were used to draw the public’s attention to police brutality after George Zimmerman, a neighborhood watch coordinator, was acquitted after shooting and killing Trayvon Martin, an African American teen. The propaganda techniques used by activists and the community prevented police from quietly sweeping it under the rug, with the public demanding justice.²³

The Bandwagon Effect for Luxury Goods

Another propaganda technique leverages the bandwagon effect, which suggests that we are more likely to adopt behaviors that other people exhibit. This is especially true if we look up to or have positive perceptions of the people exhibiting the behaviors.

In a 2018 study, Polish psychologist Małgorzata Niesiobędzka wanted to see whether the bandwagon effect increased the consumption of luxurious goods. Luxury items act as a wealth and status symbol, persuading people to make expensive purchases to gain social acceptance and prestige. Niesiobędzka recruited 60 teenagers to participate in a study where they were shown an advertisement for an iPhone. In the experimental condition, the advertisement used the slogan “All your favorite stars already have it, and you?” to relate the iPhone to an aspirational group (celebrities), whereas in the control group, the teenagers just saw an image of an iPhone without a slogan. The participants were then asked how much money they would be willing to spend on the iPhone. Those in the experimental group were willing to pay more, on average 1477.59 zl ($381.24 US) compared to the 962.47 zl ($248.33 US) proposed by the control group. 

Additionally, prior to stating how much they would pay for the iPhone, participants were asked to complete a missing word that was purposefully chosen because it related to either a term associated with famous people or a neutral word. For example, participants may have seen “sl_wa”. In Polish, slawa means fame, while slowa means words. Teens in the experimental group were more likely to create a word that related to famous people, showing that the advertisement caused them to think about the aspirational group.²⁴ 

Donald Trump’s Propaganda Techniques

Donald Trump has become infamous for using social media to drive public opinion, often turning to X (formerly Twitter) to share his opinions. Leading up to the 2016 election, Trump’s antics caused him to dominate media coverage, but many people believed that the media would eventually lose interest in him. However, Trump continued to be covered by media outlets, earning 76.9% of all Republican candidate mentions in the primary season. Jeb Bush, who had the second most mentions, only secured 5.3%. After Trump was elected in 2016, he received three times as much coverage as previous presidents.¹³

One of the ways that Trump has successfully used propaganda to gain attention is through the marketing of products under his brand. Leading up to the election, there was Trump-branded water, neckties, and luxury apartment buildings, which unconsciously caused people to relate power and wealth to Trump.¹³ Despite the fact that in reality, many of Trump’s businesses have lost money (a Times exposé said that he lost more money than nearly any other American taxpayer),²⁵ he was able to use propaganda to position himself as a successful businessman.

Trump has used a number of other propaganda techniques, including the slogan “Make America Great Again” and his recent stunt at the Super Bowl. While Trump was in attendance at the Big Game, an announcement came over the public address system, “Air Force One is currently in international waters, for the first time in history flying over the recently renamed Gulf of America.” Despite a name change having little to do with the needs of Americans, Trump used the opportunity to display showmanship at one of the country’s biggest annual events, shaping public opinion that the move (and he himself) should be celebrated.²⁶

Fake News: Why Does it Persist and Who’s Sharing it?

Even with all the attention brought to “fake news,” warning people not to trust everything they read on the internet, research has shown that people are still highly susceptible to being duped by misinformation. In this article, our writer Lorenzo Flores explains the danger of fake news, explores what causes people to spread misinformation, and provides tips on how to verify the information we read online. 

TDL Brief: Trusting Science

In recent years, science has lost its authoritative position, with many people now approaching science with skepticism. We experienced this during the COVID-19 pandemic, when many were reluctant to believe the severity of the pandemic and therefore refused to participate in protective health behaviors. The mistrust in science has caused the field to come up with innovative propaganda techniques to spread information, such as having Meredith Grey, the star of medical drama Grey's Anatomy, contract the virus. In this article, our writers Dan Pilat and Dr. Sekoul Krastev explain what has contributed to the mistrust of science, how it has impacted our response to the pandemic and climate change, and the dangerous effects it has on our society. 

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