Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

How do you go about learning a new skill or hobby? Whether you watch how-to videos, attend in-person classes, or seek guidance from a helpful friend, you likely learn a lot through observation. Watching other people demonstrate what you’re trying to do is an excellent way to pick up new behaviors. 

But this form of learning is not an automatic, passive process. To learn from someone else, you have to pay attention, remember what you observed, and be motivated to reproduce the behavior. Also, you have to believe in your ability to perform the behavior and your environment must provide opportunities for practice and reinforcement. These various environmental, behavioral, and cognitive processes involved in learning make up the basic components of social cognitive theory.

Social cognitive theory was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura as an evolution of his earlier social learning theory.¹ While social learning theory posited that people learn primarily by observing others, social cognitive theory incorporated the crucial role of cognition and human agency in learning and behavior change. As such, social cognitive theory represents a comprehensive framework for understanding how people learn behavior within a social context.

Thanks to its complex representation of human functioning, social cognitive theory has been widely applied in fields such as health, education, and organizational psychology to understand and predict behavior.

One of the fundamental components of social learning theory is reciprocal determinism.² This concept describes the reciprocal interplay between environmental, behavioral, and personal cognitive factors in the process of learning and behavior change:

• Environmental Factors: Aspects of the environment that influence our behavior, such as social norms, cultural influences, and access to resources, information, and materials.
• Behavioral Factors: Aspects of an individual’s behavior that influence their environment and beliefs. These include a person’s actions, skills, competencies, and behavioral patterns.
• Personal factors: An individual’s internal factors that influence behavior, including their cognitive abilities, knowledge, attitudes, values, goals, emotional states, and self-efficacy.

Social cognitive theory suggests that these three key components continuously influence each other in a dynamic relationship, providing a more comprehensive explanation of human behavior than models suggesting behavior acquisition is a unidirectional, cause-and-effect process. For instance, our cognitive abilities influence how we interact with our environment, which in turn influences our beliefs and behaviors.

Reciprocal determinism is just one aspect of social cognitive theory. Other important constructs include self-efficacy, observational learning, reinforcements, and outcome expectancies.¹

Reciprocal Determinism: The central component of social cognitive theory. Reciprocal determinism refers to the dynamic interaction between personal factors, environmental factors, and behavioral factors that influence behavior. This concept suggests that one’s behavior both influences and is influenced by their cognitive processes and the external environment.

Self-Efficacy: The belief in one’s ability to successfully execute a behavior. Our self-efficacy is influenced by our behavioral capabilities as well as personal and environmental factors. In turn, self-efficacy influences our motivation and willingness to embrace challenges or attempt tasks.

Observational Learning: The process of learning by observing the behaviors of others. The concept of observational learning is more than simply imitating what someone else is doing, but involves underlying cognitive processes like attention, retention, and motivation—these are fundamental to reproducing observed behaviors.

Reinforcements: Responses to a person’s behavior that either increase or decrease the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. In social cognitive theory, these reinforcements can originate internally or come from the external environment. Reinforcements play an important role in the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.

Outcome Expectancies: The anticipated consequences of a behavior. We form outcome expectancies by observing others perform behaviors and the outcomes they experience, but also by directly engaging in behaviors and experiencing the outcomes ourselves. Environmental influences, such as cultural norms, can also influence our outcome expectancies.

Albert Bandura started his work on social learning theory—which would later become social cognitive theory—in the 1960s. Bandura is well-known for his Bobo doll experiments in which he demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behavior simply by observing and imitating adult models, even without direct reinforcement.³ Bandura developed social learning theory based on these experiments, describing how learning takes place within a social context.

Bandura’s initial work challenged the existing behaviorist perspective of the time, which held that all behaviors are acquired and shaped by environmental stimuli. Bandura’s contribution emphasized the role of cognitive processes in learning and marked a key shift in our understanding of human behavior.⁴ Social learning theory continued to evolve as Bandura introduced ideas such as self-efficacy, observational learning, and reciprocal determinism, highlighting the importance of personal, behavioral, and environmental influences on behavior and the dynamic relationship between these three factors.

In 1986, Bandura fully articulated social cognitive theory in his book Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, which emphasized the role of cognitive processes in learning and performing new behaviors. In the years since, social cognitive theory has been applied across various fields, from education and communication to healthcare and organizational behavior.⁵ Researchers continue to use the theory to explore human behavior and address contemporary issues, like how digital media might facilitate observational learning.

Albert Bandura: Canadian-American psychologist known for his groundbreaking work on social learning theory, social cognitive theory, and the concept of self-efficacy.⁴ Bandura’s work challenged the dominant behaviorist perspective of his time, and his famous Bobo doll experiments laid the foundation for our understanding of observational learning. Bandura authored several books and articles over his career and received numerous awards for his contributions to the field of psychology.

Social cognitive theory has introduced important concepts to the field of behavioral science and expanded our collective understanding of human behavior. Thanks to its broad perspective, the theory has been applied to diverse areas of behavior change with far-reaching implications across various disciplines. For instance, several studies have explored the application of social cognitive theory in health promotion research to improve patient outcomes in primary care settings.²

One such review found that health interventions based on social cognitive theory constructs like self-efficacy and observational learning consistently led to positive health outcomes.⁶ Some of these positive outcomes included increased self-reported physical activity and increased adherence to post-transplant medication.

More recently, researchers have tried applying social cognitive theory to explain the variance in preventive behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic.⁷ Several studies have applied the theory to predict behaviors like physical distancing, mask-wearing, and vaccine uptake. This research suggests that future studies in this area could help us form and test interventions to promote adherence to preventive health behaviors moving forward.

Researchers have also discussed applying social cognitive theory on an even broader scale. Bandura himself proposed the use of his ideas to address urgent global issues like climate change and population growth. In his 2011 book chapter The Social and Policy Impact of Social Cognitive Theory in Social Psychology and Evaluation, he argued that social cognitive theory could be applied to promote environmental conservation and suggested modeling desired behaviors in TV shows.⁸

In line with Bandura’s suggestions, social cognitive theory is frequently applied in studies examining how media can influence our beliefs and actions. The theory provides a theoretical foundation for exploring these ideas and studying how media could be used to address other global issues like poverty reduction, gender equality, and financial literacy.

One of the main criticisms of social cognitive theory is that it’s overly broad and abstract. Some critics argue that the theory is not entirely unified, but a loosely organized collection of various factors that influence behavior.¹ The specific components of the theory—and their effects on behavior—are not fully understood. This makes it difficult to translate the theory into practical applications, let alone evaluate the theory and test its assumptions in scientific research.⁹

When researchers do attempt to study social cognitive theory, designing studies is challenging. Not all social learning can be directly observed—learning can take place even if it does not result in overtly expressed behaviors. As such, it’s not easy to measure and quantify the effects of various cognitive, environmental, and behavioral factors on learning. Due to these limitations, social cognitive constructs remain largely theoretical. Researchers often suggest that the theory can be bolstered by newer theories with better predictive power.¹⁰ Still, researchers often apply the theory to explain study findings or provide a theoretical framework to examine behavioral phenomena.

Some critics also argue that social cognitive theory places too much emphasis on environmental factors, overlooking other potential behavior determinants such as biological or genetic influences. For instance, when discussing the limited efficacy of the theory for promoting lifestyle changes related to weight loss, researchers note that it fails to consider the influence of biology on weight-related behaviors.¹¹

Social cognitive theory also tends to oversimplify the environmental context of behavior, failing to address how complex social and cultural norms can influence behavior. For instance, media effects studies show that the same environmental input can have different behavioral effects on people from different cultures.¹² This limitation highlights the need for understanding cultural contexts when applying the theory to study behavior.

Transitioning to Driving Cessation in Later Life

A recent 2023 study explored barriers to alternative transportation among older adults through the lens of social cognitive theory.¹³ In the study, researchers asked a sample of adults aged 55 and older questions about alternative transportation. Answers to these questions revealed that participants were very reliant on their vehicles and many had not seriously considered alternative transportation options in the event they might have to stop driving in the future.

The study uncovered several personal, environmental, and behavioral factors that served as barriers to alternative transportation. For example, environmental barriers included concerns about the safety of public transit and the logistics of handling errands on foot. Cognitive factors included beliefs like “I can’t see myself taking public transportation” and “I like the independence of being able to drive myself places.” 

Researchers suggest implementing interventions to target these specific barriers. For example, they point out the need for better public transit and walking infrastructure but stress that these environmental interventions alone will not be enough to address alternative transportation barriers. In the end, the authors conclude that their findings show a need to increase the self-efficacy of older adults considering alternative transportation by incorporating individual behavioral patterns and personal factors into intervention design.

Observational Learning

Observational learning is a core component of social cognitive theory specifically concerned with how we learn by observing the behavior of others. This article explores observational learning in greater detail, diving into the fascinating history behind Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments as well as the current state of research in the field.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism was the dominant school of thought in psychology before the introduction of cognitive theories—like Bandura’s social cognitive theory—to explain learning and behavior. Despite its focus on observable behavior and environmental stimuli, behaviorism established a foundation for studying behavior and still offers insights into the process of learning through conditioning.

1. The Social Cognitive Theory. (2022, November 3). sph.bu.edu. Retrieved August 27, 2024, from https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/sb/behavioralchangetheories/BehavioralChangeTheories5.html 
2. Health Behavior and Health Education | Part Three, Chapter Eight: Key Constructs. (n.d.). Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved August 27, 2024, from https://www.med.upenn.edu/hbhe4/part3-ch8-key-constructs.shtml
3. Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045925
4. Fadul, J. A. (2014). Encyclopedia of theory & practice in psychotherapy & counseling. Lulu.com
5. Kauffman, D. F., & Boruchovitch, E. (2023). Editorial: Past, present and future contributions from the social cognitive theory (Albert Bandura). Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1258249
6. Islam, K. F., Awal, A., Mazumder, H., Munni, U. R., Majumder, K., Afroz, K., Tabassum, M. N., & Hossain, M. M. (2023). Social cognitive theory-based health promotion in primary care practice: A scoping review. Heliyon, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14889
7. Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2022). Social cognition theories and behavior change in COVID-19: A conceptual review. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 154, 104095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2022.104095
8. Bandura, A. (2011). The social and policy impact of social cognitive theory. In M. Mark, S. Donaldson, & B. Campbell (Eds.), Social psychology and evaluation (pp. 33-70). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
9. Ogden J. (2003). Some problems with social cognition models: a pragmatic and conceptual analysis. Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 22(4), 424–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.22.4.424
10. Bennett, B., Sharma, M., Bennett, R., Mawson, A. R., Buxbaum, S. G., & Sung, J. H. (2018). Using Social Cognitive Theory to Predict Medication Compliance Behavior in Patients with Depression in Southern United States in 2016 in a Cross-Sectional Study. Journal of Caring Sciences, 7(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.15171/jcs.2018.001
11. Anton, S., Das, S. K., McLaren, C., & Roberts, S. B. (2021). Application of social cognitive theory in weight management: Time for a biological component? Obesity, 29(12), 1982-1986. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23257
12. Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Kanouse, D. E., Elliott, M., & Berry, S. H. (2005). Social cognitive processes mediating the relationship between exposure to television's sexual content and adolescents' sexual behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(6), 914–924. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.914
13. Fields, N. L., Dabelko-Schoeny, H., Murphy, I. E., Highfill, C., Cao, Q., White, K., Sheldon, M., Jennings, C., & Kunz-Lomelin, A. (2023). Social Cognitive Theory, Driving Cessation, and Alternative Transportation in Later Life. Journal of applied gerontology : the official journal of the Southern Gerontological Society, 42(11), 2252–2260. https://doi.org/10.1177/07334648231177215