What do you think of when you hear that someone is “materialistic”? Perhaps you visualize them spending all their time in a busy mall, swiping multiple credit cards and carrying bags of clothes and accessories. Maybe that vision is all set to the soundtrack of Madonna’s “Material Girl.” Today, when we call someone ‘materialistic,’ we’re usually referring to their love of possessions or status symbols. But the original meaning of materialism is something quite different—it began as a bold philosophical claim about the nature of reality itself.

While extreme consumption may be what we associate with materialism today, the idea of materialism has a long and dynamic philosophical history, which began over 2000 years ago in the first millennium BCE. Materialism, as a philosophical theory, can be defined by two claims:

1. Material matter is the only thing in our reality that truly exists;
2. Nothing else exists apart from material matter.¹

In other words, materialism assumes that anything that actually exists can only be made up of matter or otherwise arises from material interactions. As you might expect, this stance is heavily debated. Materialism faces many criticisms from proponents of other philosophical theories, including dualism, which argues that the mind and body are separate, distinct entities. Materialism, it is said, fails to fully explain the complexities of the subjective experience. Regardless of where you stand on the “matter,” materialism remains a foundational philosophical perspective that continues to influence various fields of modern science and social discourse to this day.

Philosophical Materialism: The belief that everything that truly exists is matter; everything is material. Thus, all phenomena we see result from material interactions.²

Ontology: A branch of philosophy which deals with the questions of being and existence.³

Monism: Any philosophical theory that states that everything is only composed of one substance.² Examples include materialism, which suggests that everything is made up of matter, and idealism, which suggests that everything is mental.

Dualism: Any philosophical theory that states that reality comprises two distinct substances, such as mind and matter.²

Pluralism: Any philosophical theory that states that everything is composed of several substances rather than just one (monism) or two (dualism).²

Physicalism: A philosophical theory that states that the nature of the actual world is exclusively physical matter. Physicalism is very similar to the concept of philosophical materialism, however, it includes other forms of physical existence, such as force. This inclusion makes physicalism almost synonymous with the modern definition of materialism. For this reason, many use the terms materialism and physicalism interchangeably.⁴

Physical Theory: A framework for studying, describing, and predicting the behavior of physical phenomena.¹⁹ Some common examples of physical theories include quantum mechanics, Einstein’s theory of relativity, and Newton's laws of motion and gravitation. These theories attempt to explain how the physical world works by establishing universal laws and forces that govern matter.

Materialism has a long and complex history. While it emerged organically in many parts of the world, its beginnings are generally associated with the Carvaka School of Ancient Indian Philosophy, which began studying materialism as early as 600 BCE (2600 years ago). Around 200 years later, quite a few Ancient Greek Philosophers, such as Democritus, Epicurus, Thales, Lucretius, and even Aristotle, also began contributing to classical ideas of materialism.

Democritus developed the philosophical idea of atomism, which is the view that the smallest unit of physical existence is an atom, translating to “that which cannot be cut.” Epicurus built upon atomism by advocating for the idea that everything that truly exists consists of invisible and indivisible elementary particles of free-falling matter called “atoms,” which bump into each other randomly and form the fundamental building blocks of reality. Atomistic materialism, more specifically, is the idea that everything in existence—including thoughts, emotions, and consciousness itself—is made up of these tiny building blocks of matter. Scientists tend to support atomism today, as an updated version of the concept is taught in schools. Modern adaptations include the addition of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

The first documented materialist literature was written by Lucretius around 50 BCE, titled “De Rerum Natura” (“The Nature of Things”). In this poem, he recounts the philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus, agreeing that existence only consists of two things: matter and void. Anything that occurs is a result of matter in motion or different combinations of matter moving around and bumping together in the empty space that surrounds it. This argument was used by Lucretius to explain phenomena such as wind, sound, and evaporation.^5,6 Aristotle’s famous theory of hylomorphism argues that every physical object combines matter and form. If two things have the same form, it is because they come from the same “spawn.” So, for example, if two leaves look alike, they are only distinguished because they are separated into two different lumps of matter.^6,7

While materialism began to pop up in other parts of the world, such as in China and Arabia, the next major contribution would not show up for a few hundred years. This delay was due to Christianity’s condemnation of materialism, which contradicted the Christian belief in the existence of spirits. 17th-century philosophers Thomas Hobbes and Pierre Gassendi are recognized to have revived materialism when they used material theory in opposition to French Philosopher René Descartes’ dualism.

The second most notable piece of literature in materialism history is La Systeme de la Nature (“Systems of nature”) by French-German Philosopher Baron Paul d’Holbach. Written in 1770, the work was condemned by French King Louis XVI’s government and overshadowed by Descartes’ dualism theory, which continued to be more popular with the Christian masses. In his writing, D’Holbach argued that everything occurring in nature resulted from a chain reaction from the “flux of atomic motion.” His claims resembled Lucretius's, as d’Holbach asserted that reality simply consisted of matter moving in space. His ideas also resembled Newton’s laws of motion and gravity.^5,6

Later on, in 1859 and 1871, Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species and The Descent of Man, respectively, introducing his naturalistic account of the origins of biological species and structures, known today as “evolution” or “Darwinism”. Modern notions of materialism were largely strengthened by Darwin’s theory of evolution.8 Today, many believers in Darwinist evolution are materialists.⁶

By the end of the 19th century, philosophical materialism had returned to popularity. With the rising success of the scientific discipline, it is safe to say that many scientists and philosophers today would say that they agree with some form of materialism.⁵

What are the different types of materialism?

While materialism is the broad belief that reality is made up of matter, there are several specific variants of materialism, each with a unique interpretation of the philosophical doctrine. Here are some of the main types:

• Mechanical Materialism: The theory that reality is made up of hard, massy objects that are imperceptibly small and interact with each other through physical movement, operating much like a machine.²⁰ According to mechanical materialism, everything—including the human mind—exists as a result of the motion of material things. This paradigm is a precursor to materialist theories used to understand reality and human behavior.
• Historical Materialism: A theory developed by Karl Marx that builds on principles of philosophical materialism to explain how societies develop and evolve.²¹ It focuses on the material conditions of society—such as the means of production—as the driving forces of societal change rather than ideas and beliefs.
• Dialectical Materialism: The broader philosophical framework used by Marx and Friedrich Engels to understand the material world as the foundation for ideas.²² Dialectical materialism does not object to the existence of an independent mind or spirit but suggests that ideas can only arise from material conditions, like the struggles between social classes. 
• Economic Materialism: A worldview that prioritizes material possessions and wealth as a source of personal satisfaction and a measure of economic success. This modern interpretation of materialism emphasizes the importance of material goods in shaping societal priorities.²³

What is a materialist mindset?

A materialist mindset is a worldview that considers material possessions and the acquisition of these possessions of utmost importance.²³ Materialists view possessions as essential to their satisfaction and well-being and tend to judge their success—and the success of others—based on the number and quality of their possessions. The value of possessions, in the materialist’s mind, is rooted partly in their ability to communicate social status and project a desirable self-image. 

While the philosophical meaning of materialism is typically seen as distinct from the modern use of the term, materialistic consumers do rely on physical matter (material possessions) to manifest intangible ideas like happiness and status, reflecting how philosophical materialism relies on material objects for meaning.²³

Can religion and materialism coexist?

At first glance, materialism might seem completely incompatible with religion. While materialism asserts that only matter exists, many religions believe in the existence of spiritual or supernatural entities, immaterial souls, or an afterlife. But this doesn’t automatically mean that people who follow religion cannot also believe in materialism. Some religious perspectives embrace a materialistic view of reality while interpreting religious concepts as symbolic or metaphorical, allowing the two to coexist.²⁴ Others argue that the material world—and physical processes like evolution—are the fundamental mechanisms that allow the immaterial or spiritual world to operate. For example, an increasing number of Christian philosophers now advocate for a kind of Christian materialism as a way for believers to align their views with mainstream science.²⁴ In fact, religious proponents of materialism often reject the dualistic idea that the body and nonphysical soul are distinctly different. While there’s a lot to unpack regarding the interpretation of materialism in the eyes of different religions, belief in one does not necessarily rule out belief in the other.

Aristotle

Aristotle is one of the most influential philosophers in Western culture. Both a researcher and a writer, Aristotle’s work has shaped centuries of Western philosophy and continues to be influential to this day. From the discipline of logic, metaphysics, and philosophy to aesthetics and rhetoric, Aristotle continues to shed light on and spark debate on various philosophical topics.⁹

Democritus

Democritus was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher (however, some historians argue that he is better classified as a scientist) and is recognized as one of the two founders of ancient atomic theory. Due to his emphasis on cheerfulness, he is known as the “laughing philosopher,” renowned for his contributions to mathematics and geometry. For example, Democritus was one of the first Greek philosophers to recognize that a cone has one-third the volume of a cylinder with the same base and height. Democritus is also credited with developing one of the first anthropological theories, which stated that our foraging ancestors had no language initially but developed one through a need for communicating thoughts and ideas.^10,11

Thomas Hobbes

While widely recognized as one of the founders of modern political philosophy, Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher known to have a wide range of interests. He defended materialism against Cartesian and Aristotelian conflicting arguments and advocated for how humans ought to live in harmony and avoid societal conflict. Hobbes and French philosopher René Descartes had many interactions throughout their careers, all of which were characterized as a mixture of respect and dismissal. Hobbes published several pieces of philosophical writing, most notably Leviathan, in which he outlines what we know today as the social contract theory.^12,13

René Descartes

René Descartes was a French philosopher, sometimes even called the “first modern philosopher.” He is recognized for several achievements within the realm of algebra, geometry, and philosophy: co-framer of the sine law of refraction, proposer of the formation of the earth and planets within a naturalistic perspective, composer of the modernized mind-body problem, and more. His mind-body problem posed conflicts with pure materialists because he proposed that an immaterial world existed alongside our world of matter (the mind vs the brain) and that they interacted with each other through the pineal gland. His most famous writing, titled Meditations on First Philosophy, questions the possibility of knowledge and provides the philosophical foundations for science as we know it today.^14,15

By asserting that matter is the fundamental basis for reality, materialism has shaped various domains, including philosophy, religion, science, and culture. From its inception in ancient philosophy to today, this idea has had far-reaching impacts on individuals and society at large. Here are just a few key areas of influence:

Materialism and religious faith

One of the main consequences of materialism involves the implications for the existence of non-material things. As you might expect, the rise of secularism is closely tied to materialism. Materialist ideas became more prominent and influential during the Enlightenment, marking a turning point in which many societies became more secular, looking to scientific explanations for natural phenomena instead of relying solely on religious interpretations.²⁵ Materialism states that what cannot be perceived does not exist, which includes ghosts, spirits, Gods, or any immaterial content of the mind. Out-of-body experiences and knowledge stemming from anything but sensory perception are also not acknowledged by traditional materialists. These ideas are often seen as contradictory to many religions, such as Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism, which rely on the existence of an immaterial deity and humans having spirits as a fundamental belief.⁵ 

Materialism in modern science

Materialism has also had a significant impact on scientific inquiry by emphasizing that everything in the universe is made up of matter. Across the ages, materialism has driven the search for material explanations of natural phenomena. In the twentieth century, the materialistic approach further extended to the study of psychology, focusing on neurophysiology as a basis for understanding intangible thoughts and feelings. Today, in the 21st century, most scientific disciplines largely assume that all phenomena result from interactions between material structures.²⁰ For example, biology explores living structures through the lens of contemporary physics and chemistry, taking a reductionism approach that breaks complex systems down into their simple material components to be better understood. Across various fields, materialism has helped lay a cohesive foundation for understanding the world by observing and experimenting with material interactions.

The pursuit of material possessions

Today, the philosophical idea of materialism has translated into the societal understanding of valuing material goods and possessions over spiritual well-being and values. This is where we get the imagery of excessive shopping and hoarding when hearing the word “materialism” or “materialistic.” While similar to the philosophical definition of materialism, this societal understanding acknowledges the existence of spiritual and immaterial well-being but simply places precedence on the physical reality over that which is non-physical.

Materialism as a mindset or value profoundly impacts consumer behavior and individual well-being. The Industrial Revolution and the success of capitalism, for example, are often credited with the pursuit of wealth and possessions.²³ Even today, materialism plays an important role in the economy, encouraging consumption and production—as the desire to buy things is an important motivator for work. However, materialism does have several negative consequences as well. On a global scale, materialistic values often lead to the overuse of natural resources, pollution, exploitative labor practices that prioritize profits, and wealth accumulation that widens the gap between rich and poor. Materialism also normalizes consumerism and promotes a culture of excessive work, placing unnecessary financial and psychological strain on individuals. From a psychological standpoint, much research has explored the relationship between materialism and well-being, finding that materialism is closely associated with reduced happiness.²⁶ In fact, as people become more materialistic, their sense of autonomy and purpose diminishes.

Materialism stands in great contrast with quite a few philosophical ideas, particularly idealism, which is another form of monistic ontology. Idealism argues the exact opposite of materialism: that the foundation of reality consists only of what is mental, such as the mind (unlike the physical brain), spirits, reason, and will.¹⁶  Philosophical materialism also holds contradicting views to pluralism, dualism, and other philosophical forms of monism.

In 1718, the first edition of German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason argued that objects in time and space are simply “appearances,” and that humanity does not know anything about the real substance of these appearances. This idea, known as transcendental idealism, has been heavily debated by Kant's readers, specifically, about what transcendental idealism truly is.¹⁷ This idea poses a contradiction to materialism, as it discounts the entire existence of physical objects and claims that they are merely appearances.

Materialism faces two big challenges: defining what matter is and explaining the existence of consciousness. Today, contemporary notions of philosophical materialism include scientific concepts which are invisible to the human eye, but are deductible from mathematical equations. Scientists now avidly discuss concepts like forces, dark matter, and dark energy that materialist circles would have scoffed at in the past. This continuously evolving definition of what is “material” poses problems for philosophical debate, as it becomes nearly impossible to be sure of what can be debated against or for.⁶

The existence of consciousness also poses problems to materialism. Materialism reduces mental events to chemical reactions in the brain. But how do chemical reactions lead to phenomena that are integral to the human experience, such as thinking or vivid imaginations? If we are to believe materialism’s explanation of consciousness, where is the connection between mere neurological events and being able to dream or be self-aware?⁶ Materialism does not account for the human experience outside of that which is material, making the philosophical idea difficult to swallow, as we have all had interactions with our immaterial reality. For example, most of you are probably reading this article in your head right now! Clearly, mental events are real and do occur. This has important implications, as mental events like intentionality or mental illness may not be easily acknowledged by materialists. Knowing that both exist,  it is safe to say that we don’t live in a completely (philosophically) materialistic world today.

Material consciousness: can we build conscious computers?

Materialism has more recently been used to explore the possibility of creating conscious AI systems. Answering the question of whether AI could possess consciousness ultimately comes down to figuring out where consciousness comes from in the first place. Skeptics argue that AI can only simulate consciousness, not experience it because consciousness itself involves something immaterial that humans cannot build to create. On the other hand, materialists argue that consciousness arises purely from physical processes in the brain, which suggests that we could potentially replicate these processes in a machine. If it is true that our complex thought processes and subjective experience stem entirely from our biological brain structures, AI really could become conscious, just like you and me. 

However, materialism, as a philosophical school of thought, still struggles to fully explain consciousness. Even if we assume that consciousness is entirely based on physical material, how exactly do material systems gain self-awareness? The challenge of explaining where our subjective experience comes from is referred to as “the hard problem of consciousness.”²⁷ Answering this question is much more complicated than solving the “easy problem of consciousness,” which involves explaining how the human brain performs cognitive functions or produces behavior via sensory input and computer-like processing. To build truly conscious AI, we would need to solve the hard problem of consciousness.

Another challenge to strict materialism comes from theories suggesting that quantum physics might play a role in consciousness by involving subatomic particles that don’t play by the rules of normal physics.²⁷ The unusual behavior of these particles flies in the face of our current materialist understanding. If consciousness is born out of these quantum processes, the possibility of consciousness being immaterial does not necessarily discount our ability to replicate it—consciousness might operate within a level of material reality that we don’t yet fully understand. If quantum physics is indeed involved in consciousness, we would need to harness the power of quantum computing to mimic the complex operations occurring in our biological brains.²⁷ Currently, these ideas are purely speculative, but they serve as a fascinating modern retelling of the age-old philosophical debate around materialism and the true nature of the mind.

Levi’s 501 jeans and materialism

Few brands in popular culture today hold a lot of significance to consumers. Coca-Cola, Elvis Presley, Michael Jackson, and Star Wars are just a few examples of how iconic brands can capture the symbolic imagination of the consumer. One of the most successful of these symbolic brands is Levi’s 501 jeans. However, the most interesting about 501 jeans is how this symbolic value changed over time.

Initially, the product was developed for miners in California during the Gold Rush who could not find a pair of pants that would last in their harsh working conditions. After World War II, Levi’s began targeting their marketing efforts towards a younger demographic. American actor James Dean drove the symbolism of 501 jeans towards an image of moodiness, independence, and subtle rebellion. Levi’s leaned into this independence associated with the jeans by engineering various customization capabilities like tie-dying, patchwork and stitchery. This finding was consistent with the scientific observation that after a purchase, symbolism is often added to the product.

Researchers who assessed the value of Levi’s 501 jeans across various pop culture paradigms found that Levi’s 501 jeans generally function as an instrument of confidence and security, as the product’s symbolism facilitates consumers placing themselves in correct social roles and improves their ability to execute said role. Furthermore, there were numerous testimonies of the (literal) life-saving properties of the jeans, adding to perceptions of durability and longevity.

Levi’s 501 jeans were also associated with feelings of comfort, from the product’s adaptability in the range of situations it can be worn. This adaptability gives the feeling that the jeans can be molded to fit the wearer's lifestyle. The longevity of the jeans also encourages the embodiment of special memories of when they experienced something significant while wearing their 501 jeans.¹⁸ Overall, it is clear that material goods, like a simple pair of blue jeans, can sometimes add significant value to the wearer's experiences and often can influence how they approach their lives.

Plato

Ever hear of Plato’s allegory of the cave? Well, this Ancient Greek philosopher is the Plato in question. Both a utopian thinker and uncredible cynic, Plato barely needs an introduction due to his far-reaching influence on many cognitive biases and heuristics known to behavioral scientists today.

Isaac Newton

Writer of the most influential physics book, Isaac Newton is attributed to many important findings today, such as the concept of gravity and modern calculus as we know it today. Read more about the famous English physicist and mathematician in this thinker piece.

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