Imagine you’re staying over at a friend’s place for the first time. You get a brief tour, are shown to the guest room (or the couch), and quickly find yourself asking, “What’s the Wi-Fi password?” Your friend points you in the direction of the router, and you quickly memorize the nonsense string of numbers and letters before heading back to your laptop on the coffee table. You’re able to maintain the information for long enough to type it in, but you’ll probably have forgotten it completely a couple of hours later. 

The cognitive system that allows us to store newly learned information for a brief period of time is called short-term memory. Even though short-term memory is often colloquially used to refer to memories lasting up to days or weeks, it actually only encapsulates information retained for about 30 seconds; anything beyond that is considered to be long-term memory.^1,2 Also called “active memory” or “short-term storage,” short-term memories are considered “easily accessible”—meaning they take little effort to remember—but can be lost just as quickly if we don’t transfer them to long-term memory through repetition or review, a process called consolidation.³

In the human brain, memory isn’t just one operation, but a series of related stages that work together to process information and store it for later use. Memory stages are often defined by their capacity (how much information can be stored at once) and duration (how long they can hold it).^1,2 The first stage is sensory memory, which processes highly detailed sensory information for as short as a few milliseconds, like the brief afterglow of a flash of light.² Information can then be transferred to short-term memory, which has a limited capacity and duration. For example, you’ve probably noticed that a longer Wi-Fi password is more difficult to memorize than a shorter one, and it’s easier to remember it 10 seconds later than it is two days later. Consolidation can transfer short-term memories into long-term storage, which has an indeterminate capacity and indefinite duration—that’s why we can probably remember several childhood birthdays years or decades later.¹ 

The information that moves from sensory memory to short-term memory is decided by several factors, one of which is attention; we might not notice the sound of a bird chirping if we’re at work, but we’re more likely to remember it if we’re birdwatching, for example. Similarly, the consolidation of short-term memories depends on rehearsal and review, time, and even sleep.³ In each transition between memory stages, whether it be from sensory to short-term memory or short-term to long-term memory, information can either be forgotten or retained depending on our goals, attention, and active behaviors such as repetition. As annoying as it can sometimes be, forgetting memories is a normal and necessary process built into our memory systems. By only holding on to details that we’ve consciously reviewed or that help us achieve our goals, we can process information more purposefully and efficiently.

Duration: The length of time information is stored in memory. Different types of memory can be distinguished by duration, which ranges from less than a second to indefinite time periods.¹ 

Capacity: The amount of information that can be stored in memory. Measurement depends on the system and type of information; for example, capacity in computers is measured in bits, while in human memory, capacity can be measured by the number of words, events, digits, and more.¹ 

Sensory Memory: The rapid, fleeting storage of sensory information that is the first step in the memory process. Sensory memory has a large capacity to store details, but only lasts for up to a few seconds.² 

Long-Term Memory: The final stage of memory processing, where large amounts of information are stored for extended durations, ranging from hours to decades.

Retrieval: The process of consciously accessing information from our long-term memories.

Consolidation: The process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories over time, allowing information to be stored for longer durations. This can involve rehearsing the information by repeating it, using mnemonic devices like acronyms to aid recall, and neural processes in sleep.³ 

Rehearsal: The process of repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory and transfer it to long-term memory. Rehearsal helps extend the duration of short-term memory and aids in memory consolidation.²

Working Memory: Our memory system that temporarily maintains and manipulates information for problem-solving, decision-making, and planning. Working memory is limited in duration and capacity like short-term memory, but engages more active, goal-oriented cognitive processes.¹ 

Chunking: A method for improving the capacity of our short-term memory by organizing a large amount of information into smaller groups, decreasing the amount of items to remember in each “chunk.”

The idea that memory as a whole can be divided into multiple distinct processes has existed since antiquity. The Ancient Greeks and Romans believed that we have two types of memory: natural memory, which is an ability we are born with, and artificial memory, which we can strengthen with experience and training.⁵ While today’s psychologists use different criteria to define stages of memory, the principle of dividing memories into multiple processes still survives. 

Jumping forward to 1885, German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus laid the foundation for the scientific study of memory with his work on the forgetting curve. Ebbinghaus studied how time affects memory by being his own laboratory participant, learning large numbers of nonsense syllables like “GUX” and “DIF” and testing retention over time.⁶ This allowed him to test memory without the influence of prior knowledge and model the “decay,” or forgetting, of memories over time. In his research, Ebbinghaus described gaining a “first fleeting grasp” of a series of syllables that did not necessarily ensure that he could recall the same information later on.¹ Although said in different terms, this “fleeting grasp” is likely one of the first scientific descriptions of short-term memory. 

The concept of short-term memory was further solidified in 1890, when renowned psychologist William James theorized that memory could be separated into primary memory, which is a small, conscious store of information that is temporarily available, and secondary memory, the vast, permanent storage of past information.⁴ James’s primary memory resembles modern definitions of short-term memory in many ways, describing a system with limited capacity and duration; memories that contain a small amount of information and fade quickly.¹ Similarly, his secondary memory relates to what we know as long-term memory, in its theoretically unlimited capacity and durability over time.

Memory research had its next big advancement in the late 1950s, when cognitive psychologist George Miller coined the term chunking to describe how the capacity of our short-term memory (what he called “immediate memory”) is limited by meaningful groups, or “chunks,” of information.⁷ For example, we can more easily remember a sequence of 12 letters—OPMGLLIDOKRI—as groups of threes with associated meanings—OMG/LOL/IDK/RIP (Miller would likely have used more 1950s appropriate acronyms, unless he was also secretly the originator of texting slang before text messages were invented). Miller was the first to propose a concrete capacity for our short-term memory, theorizing that it has a capacity of seven (plus or minus two) chunks.

Shortly after, in 1968, American psychologists Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin introduced one of the most well-known models of memory, known as the “multi-store” memory model.^8,9 The pair of researchers described three sequential stages of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term, along with the processes that occur between each stage.

According to Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model, sensory memories that we pay attention to are transferred into short-term memory, where they have to be rehearsed or else they’re forgotten. Short-term memories are then consolidated into long-term memories, which we can retrieve to bring them back into our short-term awareness. While this model has been refined, critiqued, and iterated upon since it was first proposed, it is still one of the most prevalent and influential models of memory that guides research today.⁹ 

The next significant advancement in memory models came in 1974, when British psychologists Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch elaborated on short-term storage with the idea of “working memory.”¹⁰ This concept describes an active, multi-component memory process that we use to manipulate information to solve problems and make decisions, like remembering multiple numbers and operations when doing calculations in your head. While the term was also used by Atkinson and Shiffrin to describe the short-term store as a “mental workspace,” Baddeley and Hitch elaborated on the idea and brought new attention to the importance of multiple temporary memory stores in guiding our behavior.⁹ 

Today, researchers are still unpacking the intricacies and utilities of short-term memory. New memory models are continuing the tradition by proposing new ways short-term memory can be broken down into smaller components; some researchers have theorized that we have a short-term store specifically for conceptual information, like processing the general “gist” of an image.²⁸ Scientists are also tackling the difficult, often philosophical task of connecting short-term memory to consciousness, further revealing how memory shapes our subjective experiences, and vice versa.²⁸   

Hermann Ebbinghaus 

The German psychologist who originated the empirical study of memory with his work on the forgetting curve. First conducting experiments on himself,  Ebbinghaus used nonsensical syllables to demonstrate that factors such as repetition, time passed, and meanings associated with symbols affect how well they can be remembered. His work challenged previous notions that higher-order cognitive processes could not be studied systematically.¹¹ 

William James

Dubbed the “father of American psychology,” William James was the founder of functionalism, a school of psychological thought that sought to explain human behaviors and cognitive processes by their purpose for survival.¹² James and other functionalists believed that our thoughts, feelings, and memories help us adapt to our environments, and that studying the underlying functions of these processes is more important than analyzing their smaller components. His concept of “primary memory” was one of the earliest descriptions of a short-term memory-like system with limited capacity and duration.

George Miller

An American psychologist who is best known for his research on the capacity of short-term memory.¹³ He helped launch the cognitive revolution, a theoretical shift in the field of psychology in the 1950s away from behaviorism and toward understanding human behavior in terms of distinct mental processes, such as memory and problem-solving.¹⁴ 

Richard Shiffrin

An American psychologist and professor who developed the multi-store model of memory with his then-advisor Richard Atkinson.¹⁵ In addition to establishing a general model of memory that is still used and cited today, he also contributed to the divided attention theory, an influential model of conscious and automatic information processing.¹⁶ 

Richard Atkinson

An American psychologist, professor, and former president of the University of California, who advanced the study of memory with his work alongside Richard Shiffrin. Atkinson is also a key figure in the field of mathematical modeling in psychology, and has contributed to the U.S.’s national science policy as director of the National Science Foundation.¹⁷

Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch

British psychologists who developed a foundational model of working memory, expanding on Atkinson and Shiffrin’s short-term memory “workspace” concept. Baddeley and Hitch posited that working memory is composed of multiple distinct systems that handle different types of information, such as a “phonological loop” that processes auditory information and a “visuospatial sketchpad” that processes images and spatial layouts.¹⁰ 

Short-term memories play a key role in our behavior and decision-making, allowing us to hold, access, and manipulate information that helps us achieve our goals.

Goal-oriented processing

One of short-term memory’s most important features is that it’s selective; rather than giving us an exact snapshot of any given moment, it allows us to pick out only information that’s relevant for our current contexts and goals. This selectivity is driven by attention—whether it be automatic, like vividly remembering a loud, startling noise, or intentional, like consciously focusing on song lyrics you’re trying to memorize.^2,10

Consequently, everyone’s short-term memory is unique to them, their experiences, and their expertise, even to the extent of impeding communication. For instance, a study of medical professionals found that anesthesiologists and nurse practitioners had significantly larger short-term memory capacities for pre-operation information than their patients.¹⁸ This capacity asymmetry means that clinicians might give patients more information than their short-term memory can hold, leading to information overload for patients and causing confusion and anxiety related to the procedure. 

Since clinicians have more experience with medical terms, they’re better able to pick out important information and can organize it into meaningful chunks.¹⁸ As a result, patients often forget what was said after a consultation or appointment since they don’t have the same capacity-enhancing tools or experience. Clinicians should be mindful of their patients’ short-term memory capacity when communicating important information—something we all might learn from, regardless of the field we are in. By understanding the mechanisms of short-term memory storage, we can become better educators and conversation partners by considering capacity and leveraging memory enhancement techniques such as repetition to help the listener retain more information.

Language comprehension

Have you ever zoned out in the middle of a conversation, only to tune back in and realize you have no idea what anyone’s talking about? Then you’ve probably experienced the importance of short-term memory in language comprehension firsthand. 

Our understanding of sentences relies heavily on our ability to remember what words came earlier in the same sentence.¹⁹ For example, to understand the sentence “the dog bit the man who walks him,” we need to hold the nouns “dog” and “man” in our short-term memory to know what “who” and “him” are referring to. Patients with semantic short-term memory impairments—or in other words, difficulties remembering facts and meanings—repeatedly exhibit deficits in language comprehension, struggling to understand sentences that require us to hold multiple word meanings in our head. Short-term memories play a key role in how we communicate with one another and understand the world around us, even in skills that seem second-nature, like language. 

Short-term computational memory 

Given how important short-term memories are in our decision-making, it’s likely no surprise that computers are often built in a similar way. Even though the rise of AI is bringing comparisons between the human brain and computers into the spotlight like never before, drawing parallels between organic and artificial minds dates back to the cognitive revolution of the 1950s. This period in the history of psychology aimed to understand human behavior by its component mental processes, frequently likening them to how computers process information.¹⁴ 

According to this view, computers and the human brain broadly process information in a similar way, taking some input, storing it, and processing it to produce some output. For instance, a computer might take input from a keyboard and produce a Google search, while our brains can take an auditory input and produce a verbal response. Memory is one of several mental processes that can be approximated computationally, which is reflected in the design of many computers themselves. Similar to our short-term and long-term memory systems, computers have random-access memory (RAM) and a hard drive.²⁰ The RAM stores data that is currently being used to run software, open files, and use applications, accessing information from long-term storage in the hard drive. If you’ve ever experienced the agony of accidentally closing an app without saving, only to find whatever progress you made is lost forever, you’ve experienced the limited duration of RAM; once it’s closed, it’s wiped to make room for new data.

What can this parallel tell us about our own brains? A computer’s RAM facilitates quick and efficient computation, since the computer doesn’t need to sift through the vast amount of data in the hard drive every time it needs another piece of information.²⁰ Our brains work in a similar way—maintaining a select amount of information that is relevant to our current tasks and goals, so we don’t have to go through our entire life story to remember what word we saw two seconds ago. Short-term memory and RAM are just one example of the reciprocal relationship between psychology and computer science, where, in some ways, we can understand brains as computers and build computers like brains. 

What happens when research on short-term memory falls short? Although psychologists widely accept that short-term memory exists in some form, its exact mechanisms and relationships to other memory systems are still unclear.

Short-term memory vs. working memory

Despite both being foundational concepts in the study of memory, the relationship between short-term memory and working memory is murky. Are they the same thing? How do they overlap, if at all? Is working memory a type of short-term memory, or vice versa? Psychologists have been debating these questions for decades, and we still haven’t reached a definitive answer. 

Here’s what we do know: short-term memory and working memory both have limited capacities and durations. Working memory, as described by Baddeley and Hitch, is an active process where temporarily stored information is manipulated to achieve some goal, like planning our behaviors.^1,8,10 Short-term memory is not necessarily active, but there’s not yet a consensus on whether it has to be passive. Some researchers suggest that working memory is a subtype of short-term memory, while others define short-term memory as a component of working memory.^1,2 

But does any of this even matter? Yes and no. We probably don’t need to agonize over these minutiae in our everyday lives—after all, it’s usually not super important whether we’re using short-term memory, working memory, or both to remember the coffee order we just placed. However, distinguishing between these concepts is paramount for memory research. Differing terminology can make it difficult for researchers to collaborate or build on each other’s work, and resolving these conflicts can provide insights into specific memory impairments and how to treat them. 

The not-so-magical number?

Psychologist George Miller famously discovered that “seven plus or minus two” was a near-universal capacity for short-term memory across people and experiments. Regardless of who was being tested or what memory task they were being tested on, the capacity of their short-term memory always seemed to hover around what he called the “magical number.” Miller even went so far as to begin his landmark papers by saying, “My problem is that I have been persecuted by an integer,” referring to how the number seven appeared so often in his research that it seemed to follow him relentlessly.⁷ 

The magical number has become a hallmark of Miller’s work on short-term memory capacity, but did Miller think the same? Many psychology students learn about the supposed magical number in their psychology textbooks, but only a few ever discover that Miller himself may not have been that serious about it. Miller’s autobiographical account from 1989 revealed that he wrote the 1956 article after being persuaded to give a public address on his research, which he personally didn’t think was significant enough for a full talk.²¹ While the psychologist used the number seven more or less as a rhetorical device to structure his address, it wasn’t necessarily the definitive answer that his dramatic writing style seemed to suggest. (So perhaps, in hindsight, we can understand his description of being followed around by a number as deeply unserious.)^1,21

The revelation that seven chunks may not be the definitive, universal memory capacity is corroborated by other researchers in the field, whose studies, while lesser known, have instead identified memory capacities of approximately three or four units.^1,21 Given this significant variance, researchers have generally speculated that memory capacities might be more task-specific than Miller initially thought, or that they completely depend on the circumstances. But the fact that the number wasn’t exactly on the dot doesn’t entirely discredit Miller’s work; Miller himself credited psychologist Herbert Simon as saying, “George had the right idea, but the wrong number,” succinctly summing up how Miller’s work still contributed important insights into how short-term memory capacity works.²¹ Miller’s concept of chunking and measuring capacity by meaningful units, rather than the smallest possible units, still stands up to psychological research. 

Still, this misunderstanding of Miller’s work is not necessarily “all’s well that ends well.” For approximately 40 years after Miller published his article, little research investigated memory capacity limits, leaving Miller’s magical number untouched and unquestioned.²¹ Nelson Cowan, another prominent memory researcher, believes that researchers avoided pursuing this line of inquiry in fear of being dismissed or ridiculed for taking the topic so seriously when Miller didn’t.²¹ The fame of Miller’s magic number may have stunted research into memory capacity for years, preventing researchers from refining or elaborating on his findings. 

“Dory syndrome” and the case of H.M.

Short-term memory arguably had its biggest pop culture moment in 2003 with the release of Finding Nemo. The enormously popular animated film featured the character Dory, a “friendly but forgetful” blue tang fish that captured the hearts of audiences worldwide with her charming optimism… and signature amnesia.²² Specifically, Dory self-reports that she suffers from short-term memory loss, causing her to forget memories shortly after she makes them. This leads to significant obstacles in Dory’s everyday life, seen in the movie when she struggles to remember people’s (or fish’s?) names or when she forgets where she’s swimming.

Although the science behind aquatic amnesia (and marine creatures talking, for that matter) is tenuous at best, this so-called “Dory syndrome” (not a medical term) resembles a very real memory loss condition called anterograde amnesia. One of the most influential cases in neuroscience is that of Henry Molaison, better known as H.M., who suffered from anterograde amnesia after undergoing brain surgery that removed his hippocampus.²³ His amnesia meant he was unable to form new long-term memories after trauma or damage to the brain.²⁴ Patients like H.M. are able to form short-term memories—he could follow instructions and remember numbers by rehearsing them, for example—but cannot consolidate those memories into long-term storage. Consequently, he forgot the names and faces of people he had seen every day after the surgery, constantly living in the present with no conception of time passing. 

H.M. provided researchers with enormous insight into the functions of memory and where they are located in the brain. His symptoms clearly underscored the difference between short-term and long-term memories, demonstrating the role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation and transferring information from short-term memory to long-term storage. The story of H.M. illustrates some of short-term memory’s greatest strengths and weaknesses; his intact short-term memory gave him an impressive ability to maintain semi-normal functioning in his demeanor and social interactions, yet the consequences of never being able to form new memories were staggering, confining him to a world that reset every 30 seconds.

Sports-related injuries

Recent research and news coverage on chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in football players are bringing attention to the consequences of sports-related injuries on brain health. While CTE, seizures, and brain bleeding are severe, life-changing consequences after sports-related head impacts, earlier markers of brain damage, like memory loss, can create significant challenges for athletes’ day-to-day functioning and may be critical warning signs for athletes and coaches to prevent further damage. Sports-related concussions, which occur in a significant number of collegiate athletes, have been linked to long-term impairments in working memory.^25,26 

In 2022, several researchers studied the memory effects of boxing and severe head impacts.²⁷ After study participants underwent a year of professionally-supervised boxing training, they were found to have significant impairments in working memory and short-term memory, emphasizing the need for sufficient head protection in contact sports and greater preventative measures protecting athletes from injury-related memory loss. Studies like this demonstrate that short-term memory is not only a function that should be protected, but it can also act as a precursor for more severe, life-altering injuries down the road, allowing athletes to protect themselves and continue playing safely. 

Cognitive Load Theory 

Since George Miller’s “magical number seven,” researchers have continued to investigate how our memory capacities work between different systems. Learn more about how psychologists conceptualize working memory capacity in terms of cognitive loads, a model that continues to guide educational design and learning up to this day.

Storage 

What happens to short-term memories after they’re consolidated into long-term memories? How do we use stored information in meaningful ways? This article dives deeper into memory storage and how it shapes who we are and how we behave.

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