Needing to pick up a new book, you head to the mall. You’ve been trying to save money lately, so you’re determined to only shop for the book and not browse the other stores. However, when you get to the mall, a poster in front of a candle store catches your eye. The poster depicts two friends laughing and sipping wine, surrounded by soft candlelight. The slogan underneath reads: “Give the gift of connection.” Although a candle wasn’t on your shopping list, you rationalize that it’s your friend Sophie’s birthday next month and decide to pop into the store for a quick moment.

As you look for the candle featured in the poster, you notice a sign on a different display that says “Best Seller.” You take a sniff, and it smells amazing—notes of cinnamon and vanilla. Perhaps you’ll buy a treat for yourself, too—after all, it would make cozying up on the couch with your new book even better! You grab the other candle for Sophie and head to the cash register. Once there, the sales associate mentions to you that for a limited time only, when you buy two candles, you can get a third at half price. According to girl math, getting a third candle for such a great deal would mean that you’re saving money, right? You find a third candle and make your purchase. As you leave the store, you wonder what just happened. You intended to only buy a book during this trip to the mall, yet you’ve spent $100 on candles and haven’t even stepped foot in the bookstore!

Everything about the candle store nudged you towards the purchase: the emotion-inducing poster, the social proof that accompanied the sign “Best Seller,” and the feeling that you’re getting a deal by buying a third candle. This is persuasion in action—a powerful force that impacts the way we behave and the decisions we make. There are myriad methods—both overt and covert—by which individuals, organizations, and marketers use persuasion to shape our choices, often without us even realizing it.

Reciprocity: A principle of persuasion that suggests we are more compelled to be persuaded if we receive or have received something in return.² For example, a friend might persuade you to help him paint his room if he points out that he helped you assemble furniture when you moved apartments. A corporation may also use reciprocity as incentivization, such as by entering you in a draw to win a gift card if you refer a friend. 

Scarcity: The idea that we are more likely to be persuaded if we feel that we may lose the opportunity or that there are limited opportunities available.² For example, if a store labels an item as “limited time only,” you’d be more likely to purchase it. 

Authority: A principle of persuasion whereby if you perceive that the person has expert knowledge or power, you are more likely to follow their advice or direction. For example, we are more likely to be persuaded by authoritative figures like doctors, teachers, or politicians.² 

Consistency: As creatures of habit, we are more likely to continue behaving the same way or follow through on a decision we have already made. For example, if a restaurant calls you to confirm your reservation for that evening, you are more likely to show up because you feel like you’ve made a commitment.² 

Liking: A principle of persuasion that states people are more likely to be persuaded if they like the source of the message. For example, if you like your boss, you’re likely to be more willing to stay late at the office to help them with a project.³

Social Proof: A principle that suggests we are more likely to conform our behavior and make decisions that are portrayed as socially acceptable and desirable. For example, marketers will feature celebrities in their advertisements to endorse products. 

Nudge: A behavioral science persuasion tool where an environment is slightly altered to push people towards a particular decision or behavior. For example, a charity may use a suggested donation amount of $10, which will deter you from donating less. 

The study of persuasion began long ago in ancient Greece. Over two thousand years ago, ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote Rhetoric, a guide on how to master the art of persuasion. Aristotle believed that words carried immense power and had the ability to influence the way people behave. Rhetoric outlined three key methods of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos. Ethos related to the speaker’s credibility, pathos was about appealing to emotion, and logos suggested that speakers appeal to logic to persuade.⁴ 

Ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle laid the foundation for persuasion through rhetoric, but it wasn’t until the early 18th century that we began to think about how persuasion may impact decision-making. Scottish philosopher David Hume was one of the first thinkers to emphasize that emotions are powerful forces that can influence our decisions.⁵ Historically, people believed in the Homo economicus: that humans were purely rational beings that always made decisions based on what would lead to maximum utility.⁶ Alternatively, Hume suggested that our decisions stray from rationality, and potentially morality, because passion and emotion motivate our behavior. Our decisions can be swayed by emotions, which explains why we are susceptible to persuasion.⁵

During World War II, American psychologist Carl Hovland worked for the U.S. Army to study the effectiveness of training and information programs designed to motivate the military, in order to understand how soldiers processed persuasive communications and how to overcome resistance.⁷ After the war ended, Hovland continued his research on persuasion at Yale. During this time, he developed the Yale attitude change approach, which described three features that determine effective persuasion: the source of the message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience. 

It was found that the more credible and attractive the source of the message was, the more likely people were to be persuaded. Persuasive content was subtle, complex, and showed multiple sides of an argument. To be persuaded, audience members had to pay attention. Hovland also found that people with lower intelligence and self-esteem were more likely to be persuaded, and that younger people are more susceptible.⁸ 

In 1984, American social psychologist Robert Cialdini expanded Hovland’s ideas in his book Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. Cialdini argued that despite the fact that everyone uses persuasion tactics and falls victim to them, few people really understand the mechanics behind persuasion. He wrote, “It is odd that despite their current and widespread use and looming future importance, most of us know very little about our automatic behavior patterns. Perhaps that is so precisely because of the mechanistic, unthinking manner in which they occur.”⁹ To help people become more aware of how persuasion works, Cialdini outlined six principles of persuasion in his book: reciprocity, scarcity, authority, consistency, liking, and social proof.³

Since ancient Greek philosophers began exploring how persuasion could be used in public discourse and politics, and psychologists explored how our decision-making and rationality are susceptible to emotions and persuasion, the study of persuasion has only become more relevant. Persuasion guides much of our day-to-day behavior, whether it be the clothes we choose to put on in the morning, what we decide to post on social media, or which restaurants we go out to for dinner. Advances in behavioral science, psychology, and data analytics have made persuasive techniques more sophisticated, subtle, and personalized than ever before, and we must be aware of these techniques to make informed decisions. 

Aristotle

An Ancient Greek philosopher who made pioneering contributions to philosophy, science, and psychology. In philosophy, he introduced syllogistic logic, where conclusions are drawn and can be said to be true given true premises. He also suggested that ethical behavior is not abiding by strict rules, but by developing one’s own sense of morality. He is often referred to as the first scientist, as he emphasized the importance of observation and classification and introduced four causes, or guiding questions, that help explain why things exist and change. Long before modern psychology, he explored how emotions influence human behavior and how persuasion can evoke emotions through ethos, pathos, and logos.¹⁰ 

David Hume

An 18th-century Scottish philosopher who emphasized the role that emotions play in decision-making. He argued that humans are not purely rational decision-makers because we are influenced by passion and emotions. He is well known for his works Treatise of Human Nature and Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, in which he suggests that knowledge is gained from experience rather than reason alone.¹¹ 

Carl Hovland

An American psychologist who first began studying persuasion during World War II while he was working for the U.S. Army. He was asked to study training videos and informative materials that were shown to troops in order to understand what aspects persuaded them and which aspects led to resistance. Later, as he continued researching persuasion, he developed the Yale attitude change approach, which emphasized three key characteristics that determined whether someone would be persuaded to change their beliefs: source of content, content of message, and characteristics of the audience.⁷ 

Robert Cialdini

An American social psychologist and author of the influential book Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, in which he sought to bring to light the ways that people can be persuaded. He outlined six main principles of persuasion: reciprocity, scarcity, authority, consistency, liking, and social proof.³ Cialdini has spent his career understanding what influences people to say yes, writing multiple books about influence. Currently, he is a Professor of Psychology and Marketing at Arizona State University.¹² 

Persuasion shapes far more than just personal opinions—it influences entire systems, from how we vote to how we spend and even how we behave in everyday life. Its reach spans politics, marketing, and public policy, often guiding our choices without us even realizing it.

Politics 

Persuasion has always been a powerful political tool—even in ancient Greece, evidenced by Aristotle’s Rhetoric. Politicians and political parties use persuasion to gain support and to try to influence social behavior. If you’ve watched a campaign ad lately, you may realize that instead of appealing to logic (e.g., discussing a leader’s platform or promises), they often try to evoke an emotional response in viewers. They may use fearmongering—the action of intentionally trying to evoke fear when it’s not entirely reasonable for people to be scared—to demonize their opponent. For example, in this advertisement from the New Lincoln Project, Trump is depicted as being antithetical to former U.S. President Ronald Reagan, and multiple violent videos are shown. The New Lincoln Project is also using the authority and liking principles of persuasion, as Ronald Reagan was an important and well-liked political figure.

In the digital age, politicians no longer rely solely on speeches or debates to persuade the public; they leverage digital platforms to spread their agenda through tailored messages to specific segments of the population. 

Marketing

Persuasion is the bread and butter of marketing. With so many options to choose from, companies need to rely on persuasion to convince people to buy into their brand, purchase their product, or support their cause. Marketers will purposefully leverage the principles of persuasion to try to influence consumers’ decision-making.

As psychologist Carl Hovland outlined in his Yale attitude change approach, subtle marketing techniques are usually more effective than overt ones. That may be part of what contributes to Apple’s immense success. Instead of obviously trying to persuade consumers to buy a product, they subtly sell a lifestyle. As an inspirational motivational speaker and organizational consultant, Simon Sinek explores in his book The Golden Circle, Apple focuses on the ‘why’ instead of what they sell, using value-laden messaging to appeal to consumers on an emotional level, making them feel aligned with a cause rather than sold to.¹³ For example, their 1997 “Think Different” campaign aligned the brand (and therefore, their products) with creativity and nonconformity, which was appealing in a time of social reformation. The advertisement applied the principles of authority by showcasing various innovators like Albert Einstein, as well as likability, by featuring well-liked artists like John Lennon.¹⁴

Heuristics and nudges

As people began to study persuasion, behavioral scientists also started to research small ways that people’s behavior could be swayed. Companies, public officials, and individuals can all leverage these tools in order to persuade people and guide their decisions—both for good and profit-driven reasons. 

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that make decision-making easier (or at least, they make it easier to make the decision that companies want you to make). One type of heuristic commonly employed in advertising is the scarcity heuristic, using phrases like “limited time only” or “only a few left!” This heuristic bypasses rational logic and evokes an emotional response in people, warning that if they don’t act soon, they may miss out on the opportunity, causing them to rush their purchase decision.

Nudges are interventions used to capitalize on human biases that influence our decision-making. The choice architecture (the way you position an item or service) persuades people to behave a certain way. For example, the default nudge aligns with the consistency principle of persuasion and relies on our status quo bias: we prefer to keep things as they are. Organ donation programs nudge people to become donors by making it the default option in many countries. As a resident, you’re automatically an organ donor, unless you go through the process to opt out. Research has shown that this persuasive technique leads to organ donation rates of approximately 90-100%, whereas countries that use the opt-in structure have rates as low as 5%.¹⁵ 

While persuasion can be a force for good, its power also raises ethical concerns—especially when used to manipulate rather than inform. From political propaganda to corporate greenwashing and profit-driven nudges, these examples show how persuasive tactics can blur the line between influence and exploitation.

The danger of propaganda in politics

Propaganda—a form of communication that aims to persuade people’s opinion by presenting information in a biased or misleading way—can cause people to make decisions that are not in their best interest. While some people view propaganda simply as a form of persuasion, because it intentionally attempts to mislead people by presenting them with information that pushes them to make a decision they wouldn’t normally make, others argue that it is a dangerous and deceitful tactic. 

Propaganda is commonly used in the political sphere to push a particular agenda. However, it can often diminish democracy and exacerbate social divides in society by causing people to have extremely polarized views. While it is not new, the rise of social media has led to a rapid increase in the spread of disinformation.¹⁶ This came to a head during the 2024 U.S. presidential election, with headlines worldwide discussing “fake news.” During the presidential race, over 700,000 instances of misinformation about candidates were flagged. This led to people losing confidence in the democratic system and not knowing how to make a well-informed and educated decision on who to vote for when the information they were receiving was biased.¹⁷ This highlights how persuasive tools, when used unethically, can cross the line from influencing opinion to manipulating belief—raising important questions about the responsibility that comes with the power to persuade.

Greenwashing

In an era where consumers are becoming increasingly environmentally conscious, many companies will persuade people to buy their products or services by overemphasizing their sustainability practices. They may highlight that the materials used are recyclable or that they aim to be carbon-neutral by 2050. These messages draw on persuasion principles such as liking (we will buy from brands that share our values) and authority (using scientific climate-change language). The issue, however, is that often, these persuasive techniques appeal to customers’ values with statements that are exaggerated and unsubstantiated. The practice of misrepresenting environmental benefits is known as greenwashing.
One company that received a lot of backlash for greenwashing was Lululemon for their “Be Planet” campaign. The campaign included broad and general claims about climate-friendly actions the company was taking. An environmental activist group launched an investigation into Lululemon to see if their promises rang true, highlighting that in their 2022 impact report, they reported a 100% increase in climate pollution since 2020.¹⁸ The “Be Planet” campaign made alleged commitments that the company would take actions to “avoid environmental harm and contribute to restoring a healthy planet,” but this contradicts the 2022 impact report.¹⁹ While the investigation is still ongoing, it is cases like this that led to the Canadian federal government passing Bill C-59, which prevents businesses from making unsubstantiated claims about a product’s environmental benefits.¹⁸ 

Greenwashing is a powerful example of how persuasion can be used not just to inform, but to mislead—leveraging our trust, emotions, and desire to do good in order to drive sales.

Spending persuasion

Most of the time, what companies are trying to persuade people to do is spend their money. They often rely on nudges to convince you to spend more than you would have, or purchase a product you weren’t intending to. This puts into question whether it’s fair for companies to use persuasion techniques or whether it is a form of manipulation.

Two common nudges that companies leverage to persuade consumers to spend their hard-earned cash include:

• Pre-checked add-ons. Have you ever noticed when you get to your cart that the check-box for “gift wrapping” might automatically be checked? Companies take advantage of our status-quo bias that makes us more likely to keep the add-on if it’s already been checked than if we had to check it ourselves (and are probably hoping some consumers don’t even notice). 
• Hiding fees through anchoring. The anchoring bias shows us that we tend to rely heavily on the first piece of information that we see. Companies selling tickets will often use this bias to their advantage by grabbing your attention with a low price. For example, an airline may use an ad that states you can fly to Mexico for as low as $399. However, you later realize that the price didn’t include processing fees, checked bags, or the ability to choose your seat. However, by then, commitment (a persuasion principle) on top of the anchoring bias makes you feel like you shouldn’t back out. 

These tactics may seem small in isolation, but they add up—both financially and psychologically. While behavioral science can be used to improve user experience, its persuasive power is often used to tip the scales in favor of businesses, not consumers. 

Do scarcity cues persuade or dissuade?

E-commerce sites will often use scarcity cues to persuade their customers to make purchases quickly. Countdowns prompt you to check out quickly, and messages like “only two left at this price” cause you to feel like you must act quickly to take advantage of a deal. These cues tap into our loss aversion bias, where we avoid “losses” because they have a disproportionately negative emotional impact. Things that appear scarce also seem more valuable to us. 

However, some studies suggest that scarcity cues may have the opposite effect retailers are hoping for. Many people recognize that they are creating a false sense of urgency and can recognize that companies are trying to trick them. This leads to an erosion of trust and can therefore backfire.

A 2023 study explored the effects of scarcity cues. The researchers built three almost identical e-commerce sites for the experiment. The difference? One used a countdown timer to show limited-time only products, the second used a stock progress bar to show limited supply, while the third had no scarcity cues.

Around two hundred participants were asked to shop online for clothing items after being given a persona that they were shopping for. After completing the task, they filled out a NASA Task Load Index (measures perceived cognitive load), a Website Trust benevolence scale (measures the degree to which users believe the website has their best interest in mind), and a user experience questionnaire. The researchers found that participants were most frustrated by the website with countdown timers and reported a worse user experience. However, the stock progress bar did not seem to have a significant impact on participants’ user experience. Although it led to a lower score for aesthetic appeal, it did not seem to increase the perceived cognitive load or decrease their trust on the benevolence scale.²⁰ 

This study suggests that there are some scarcity cues that are able to persuade consumers, while others cause frustration and may make consumers more likely to give up or distrust the company, suggesting that there is a fine line between persuasion and dissuasion! 

Persuading for social good: Sweden’s COVID-19 vaccination rates

While you’ll often hear of how companies or political parties use persuasion to advance their own personal agenda, it’s also a tool often used to promote social good. Governments sometimes need to persuade people to take part in health initiatives that will lead to better outcomes for individuals and societies.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, most countries offered vaccinations for free. Even though financial barriers were removed, that didn’t necessarily lead to vaccination uptake. Some countries offered cash incentives to try to persuade people to get the vaccine, while others made it mandatory for individuals to show proof of vaccination to enter establishments. However, the former was expensive, while the latter seemed intrusive and impeded on people’s freedom. 

One region in Sweden took a different approach during the pandemic. They had seen that vaccination uptake for teenagers was low, likely because these individuals perceived the risk to be low. The Uppsala region in Sweden, home to around 375,000 people, decided to play into the commitment principle as well as our status quo bias to increase vaccination rates for 16 to 17-year-olds. They sent all residents of these ages a letter with a pre-booked vaccination appointment. This removed any administrative barriers to getting the vaccine, making the healthy option the easier one. This tactic also used the social proof persuasion technique, as teens knew that all their friends had received the same letter and therefore likely would get the vaccine. 

Uppsala found that the letters led to a 10% increase in vaccination uptake for 16 to 17-year-olds when compared to other nearby regions.²¹ This case shows how well-designed persuasive strategies—grounded in behavioral science—can lead to large, positive impacts like increased vaccination rates, by gently shaping behavior rather than forcing it.

The Role of Thought Confidence in Persuasion

Thought confidence refers to how certain we feel about our own thoughts. The more confident we are about our thoughts, the less likely we are to be persuaded to change our minds. This is often overlooked in persuasion studies that are focused on how much people engage with the message rather than to what extent people feel positively about the message received. In this article, our writer Zoe Adams explores why targeting thought confidence might be the most important persuasion tactic for lasting change. 

Behind the Screens: Using AI to Dissect Social Media Persuasion

While AI is often used to persuade (and manipulate), it can also be a tool to uncover persuasion techniques in social media content. Large Language Models (LLMs) can quickly analyze vast amounts of content to identify patterns in what causes something to go viral and persuades people to engage with it. In this article, our writer Jerónimo Kanahuati discusses a study that used AI and LLMs to analyze persuasion strategies used by financial influencers on social media to determine what causes people to follow their financial advice. 

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