Social Sciences

Social sciences examine how individuals and groups behave, interact, and influence each other within a society. The disciplines underneath this umbrella utilize various methodologies, from qualitative research like interviews and focus groups to quantitative approaches like closed-ended surveys and experiments; they also include both micro-level (individual and small group) and macro-level (institutions, systems, and societies) analyses. This variety is part of what makes social science so robust! 

The disciplines that make up the social sciences are also extremely varied within the field; the workday of a psychologist is very different from the workday of a political analyst. Social scientists can work in a variety of environments, whether that be in the field, in laboratories, or focusing on literature reviews or research applications. However, the social sciences often intersect with each other, along with many outside fields (like neuroscience, data science, and environmental science), which not only deepens our understanding of human behavior but widens the impact that the social sciences can have. Ultimately, the goal of all social sciences is to generate insights that can improve societal well-being, inform public policy, and enhance our understanding of social phenomena and humanity.

Psychology: The scientific study of behavior, cognition, emotion, and perception. The field seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act both individually and within groups, often with the aim of applying this knowledge to improve mental health, education, and various aspects of human life.

Social Psychology: The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts, focusing on how these factors are influenced by the presence, actions, or characteristics of others. Social psychology includes topics like social perception, group dynamics, and interpersonal relationships.

Sociology: The study of social behavior, institutions, and society as a whole.

Cultural Anthropology: The study of human cultures, their development, and their variations across time and space.

Digital Ethnography: An emerging subfield of social sciences that examines how humans interact and communicate in digital environments. This method involves studying how people navigate various media such as social media platforms, online forums, and virtual events like webinars.

Political Science: The academic study of government, politics, and political behavior, focusing on the analysis of political systems, institutions, processes, and power dynamics at both the national and international levels. It seeks to understand how political decisions are made, how power is distributed, and how policies impact societies.

Geography: The study of places, the relationships between people and their environments, and spatial patterns.

History: The study of past events, particularly in human societies.

Linguistics: The study of language and its structure, development, and social impact.

Behavioral Economics: A subfield of economics that uses psychological insights to understand economic decision-making.

WEIRD: An acronym (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) popularized by researchers Joe Henrich, Steven Heine, and Ara Norenzayan, which outlines the specific population dominating the behavioral science research field.

Hawthorne Effect: The phenomenon where people modify their behavior in response to being observed or knowing they are part of an experiment. 

Back in the 1300s, influential figures like Ibn Khaldun—an Arab historian, philosopher, and sociologist—began developing theories on the rise and fall of civilizations and the role of economics and social cohesion in historical cycles. Khaldun’s work in historiography and sociology, particularly his book Muqaddimah, is still considered foundational in the study of social science. Other famous philosophers and theorists from a variety of religious backgrounds in the Middle Ages, including Al-Farabi, Al-Mawardi, Thomas Aquinas, Ibn Rushd, and Al-Ghazali, wrote works on philosophy, politics, and theology that continue to be studied today. 

The empirical study of social sciences is rooted in the intellectual developments and scientific methods developed in the Enlightenment period in the 17th and 18th centuries. People began to apply the scientific methods of observation and analysis—which had previously revolutionized the field of natural sciences like chemistry and biology—to the study of human society and behavior. Philosophers like John Locke, Adam Smith, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were some of the early figures who sought to understand the nature of human societies, governance, and economic systems. Their work unpacking different aspects of human life laid the groundwork for the development of distinct fields, marking the beginning of the official study of social sciences.¹

In the 19th century, as social sciences began to take shape as formal disciplines, Auguste Comte proposed a systematic approach to studying society that he called sociology. The introduction of sociology as its own field was followed shortly by the rise of political science, with thinkers like Alexis de Tocqueville and Karl Marx analyzing the structures and functions of political systems. Next, economics became more formalized as a discipline, shaped by the contributions of figures like Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill who expanded on the study of markets, labor, and capital.¹

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by the further specialization and institutionalization of the social sciences. Anthropology emerged as a distinct field through the work of scholars like Franz Boas, who applied rigorous methods to the study of cultures and human diversity. Psychology, which had roots in philosophy and physiology, finally became a recognized social science with the establishment of the first psychology laboratories by Wilhelm Wundt. Later, Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, and the cascade of additional psychological theories began to develop. During this time, universities began to create dedicated departments and programs for these disciplines, solidifying their place in academia.¹

Throughout the 20th century, social sciences continued to evolve, influenced by global events, technological advancements, and changing social dynamics. As quantitative methods rose in popularity (particularly in economics and sociology), more empirical analysis of social phenomena (gathering data through direct observation and measurement of social behavior) became commonplace. Meanwhile, interdisciplinary approaches emerged, blurring the boundaries between the various social sciences. For example, cognitive science began to form in the 1950s from the convergence of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neuroscience as a way to study the mind and information processing. Behavioral economics, which seeks to understand human behavior in economic and organizational contexts, blends psychology, economics, philosophy, and political science. Today, social sciences encompass a wide range of fields, each with its own methods and areas of focus. However, all the fields are ultimately united by the common goal of understanding the many complexities of human society and behavior.¹

Recent technological advancements like AI have enabled much larger-scale data analysis, allowing social scientists to process vast amounts of data from social media, public records, and surveys to uncover patterns in human behavior, public opinion, and social trends. Techniques like natural language processing (NLP) can be used to analyze vast amounts of text and even make more nuanced judgements on sentiment, providing insights into communication and cultural dynamics. AI has also enhanced predictive modeling and simulation, as machine learning algorithms are now able to foresee social outcomes like economic trends, elections or migration patterns with greater accuracy. However, the social sciences’ use of AI often raises ethical questions, particularly regarding privacy, bias, and the impact of automation on human behavior and social structures. Social scientists will need to be very cautious as they progress with any research based on AI generated data and will need to explore new theoretical frameworks as they unpack the implications of AI on labor, inequality, and societal decision-making processes.

Al-Farabi (872–950): A Persian philosopher and political scientist, Al-Farabi contributed significantly to political theory, ethics, and the role of the state in human development.

Al-Mawardi (972–1058): Best known as an Islamic jurist and political theorist, Al-Mawardi examined governance, leadership, and public administration, especially in The Ordinances of Government.

Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274): As a Christian philosopher and theologian, Aquinas integrated Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine, shaping early ideas on natural law and ethics.

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126–1198): A Muslim philosopher who wrote extensively on the intersection of religion, philosophy, and governance, Ibn Rushd's ideas left a lasting influence on both Islamic and Western thought.

Al-Ghazali (1058–1111): A prominent Muslim theologian and philosopher, Al-Ghazali’s works delve into ethics, politics, and the interplay between religion and society.

Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406): An Arab historian and philosopher, Ibn Khaldun is famous for Muqaddimah, a groundbreaking work on the rise and fall of civilizations that laid the foundations for modern social science.

John Locke (1632–1704): Often called the "Father of Liberalism," Locke was an English philosopher and political theorist whose work on empiricism and social contract theory deeply influenced modern political philosophy and democratic governance.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778): A French philosopher and writer, Rousseau is renowned for The Social Contract, in which he argued for popular sovereignty and explored the notion that society corrupts the inherent goodness of humans.

Adam Smith (1723–1790): The Scottish economist and philosopher is most famous for The Wealth of Nations, a foundational text in classical economics that introduced the idea of the "invisible hand" guiding free markets.

Auguste Comte (1798–1857): Credited as the founder of sociology, Comte developed positivism, advocating for the use of scientific methods to study society.

Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859): A French political thinker and historian, Tocqueville is best known for Democracy in America, a detailed analysis of American society and its democratic institutions.

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873): An English philosopher and political economist, Mill made key contributions to utilitarianism and liberal political theory, and was a strong advocate for individual freedom and social reform.

Karl Marx (1818–1883): The German philosopher and revolutionary socialist, Marx is best known for his critique of capitalism and his works The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, which laid the foundation for Marxist theory.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): As the "Father of Modern Psychology," Wundt established the first psychology laboratory and pioneered the use of experimental methods in psychology.

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Freud, an Austrian neurologist, founded psychoanalysis and developed influential theories about the unconscious mind, psychosexual development, and personality structure.

Franz Boas (1858–1942): A German-American anthropologist, Boas is often called the "Father of American Anthropology" for his work on cultural relativism and his challenge to racial determinism, emphasizing the role of culture in understanding societies.

The social sciences have profoundly impacted society, influencing everything from how we understand and address complex social issues like mental health to how we shape public policy and improve human well-being. By providing systematic frameworks and methods for studying human behavior, social structures, and cultural norms, the social sciences have contributed to a more nuanced understanding of the factors that drive individual and collective actions. This more scientific understanding has been instrumental in addressing social challenges like inequality, poverty, and discrimination; when we can use evidence-based interventions, our policies are often better designed to promote social justice and equality.

Public Policy

One of the key consequences of the social sciences is its role in shaping public policy. Insights from disciplines like economics, sociology, and political science have been crucial in designing policies that seek to improve societal outcomes. For instance, economic theories have guided fiscal and monetary policies, influencing how governments manage economies to promote growth, reduce unemployment, and control inflation. 

Similarly, sociology and political science research has informed policies related to education, healthcare, and criminal justice, which has helped to create more equitable and effective criminal justice systems. Although our criminal justice system remains imperfect, continual research on the systemic biases and pitfalls of policing, law, prisons, and courts can help us address and ultimately improve the processes for everyone. 

Mental Processes

In addition to their influence on policy, the social sciences have played a critical role in enhancing our understanding of human behavior and mental health—a rapidly growing area of research. Psychological studies have provided valuable insights into the world of mental health disorders, leading to the development of therapeutic approaches and interventions that have improved the lives of millions of people. 

Moreover, social scientists have contributed to our fundamental understanding of social dynamics and group behavior, helping to address broader societal issues like prejudice, discrimination, and polarization. By studying the underlying causes of these social problems, they’ve been able to develop strategies and structural interventions to promote tolerance, cooperation, and social cohesion.

Research 

Finally, the social sciences have impacted education and the research world as a whole by encouraging critical thinking, emphasizing data-driven insights, and forming a more comprehensive understanding of society. Incorporating social science perspectives in education has equipped us with the tools to properly ask questions about and ultimately analyze the complexities of the world around us. Through political science and psychological research, we’ve not only enriched individual knowledge but also learned how to best empower citizens to participate more actively and effectively in democratic processes. Overall, the social sciences have played a pivotal role in advancing human understanding, improving social conditions, and promoting a more just and informed society.

As social scientists from different domains continue to blend their research and perspectives, and as all research becomes more globalized, each field gets stronger. For example, evolutionary psychologists’ theories are often informed through the work of archeologists and historians who have uncovered new information on the daily lives of our ancestors. Political scientists may be able to craft better policy recommendations by leveraging sociological and anthropological research on what the lives of modern communities look like. 

Lack of Empirical Rigor

One of the primary criticisms of the social sciences revolves around the perceived subjectivity and lack of empirical rigor in some research—although this is often a critique lobbed by those more familiar with the natural sciences, where experiments can often be conducted under incredibly controlled conditions. Social sciences, on the other hand, usually deal with complex, variable-rich environments, and when studying something as complex as human history or behavior, it can be difficult if not impossible to isolate and study people objectively. This inability to analyze people in the same controlled way has led to debates about the reliability and validity of social science findings, with critics arguing that the influence of researcher bias, cultural perspectives, and societal norms can compromise the objectivity of the research. 

There is also the problem of the ‘replication crisis:’ many experiments across the social sciences have recently come under scrutiny and have failed to replicate when re-examined by other researchers or even been found outright fraudulent. A clear indication of this was in a recent meta-study, where scientists tried to replicate 100 famous psychology studies on subjects’ loneliness, morality, and free will—but only 35 of the studies held up as statistically significant once they were repeated.³

Application to Non-Western Contexts

Another major controversy concerns the application of social science theories across different cultures and societies. Many social science theories have been developed within Western contexts and may not be universally applicable—and some research can even inadvertently reinforce stereotypes or fail to account for cultural and contextual differences. Much of the existing social science research is on a WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) population, which has raised concerns about the generalizability of its findings to non-WEIRD populations. Studies that categorize people into rigid social groups based on race, gender, or socioeconomic status may also unintentionally perpetuate the very biases they aim to study. These critiques have led to a growing recognition of the need for more culturally sensitive research and a broader, more inclusive approach to studying social behavior.

Take, for example, the study of individualism vs. collectivism in cultural psychology. Many studies conducted in WEIRD societies assume that individuals prioritize personal autonomy and self-expression, traits that are typically associated with individualistic cultures. However, in non-Western, collectivist societies, (like many East Asian or African cultures), individuals tend to prioritize group harmony, family obligations, and social relationships over personal autonomy. We can see this when Western individuals are asked to define themselves through personal traits (ex. "I am independent"), which sharply contrasts with collectivist societies where people define themselves in terms of social roles and relationships (ex. "I am a good daughter/son").⁴ Acknowledging the often large and multifaceted differences between cultures is important for any research, particularly when scientists try to extrapolate the findings across larger populations. This is part of why social science research in particular must work to expand the populations on which we conduct tests.

Ethical Concerns

Ethical concerns also play a significant role in controversies surrounding the social sciences. Some research methodologies—particularly those involving vulnerable populations or controversial topics—have been criticized for ethical lapses. For instance, studies like the Stanford Prison Experiment, led by Philip Zimbardo, have faced severe backlash for the psychological harm inflicted on participants, raising questions about the ethical boundaries of social science research. There’s also the critique that the use of social science research in shaping public policy can be controversial, particularly when certain policies are perceived to reinforce existing power structures or perpetuate inequality.

Political Controversy

Finally, the social sciences have faced political controversy, especially when research findings challenge established social norms or governmental policies. Research on topics like gender, race, and socioeconomic inequality often sparks heated debates (regardless of the research used to back it up), as these findings can challenge deeply held beliefs and provoke resistance from those who feel threatened by social change. Moreover, the funding and support for social science research can be politicized and even weaponized, with certain areas of study receiving more attention based on prevailing political ideologies rather than on scientific merit. This extreme politicization of social science research can be incredibly limiting and lead to a skewed understanding of complex social issues. Overall, while the social sciences are essential for understanding and improving society, they continue to carry the weight of criticism and potential bias.

TDL Perspectives: Encouraging Social Justice With Behavioral Science: 

Read more about the behavioral science pitfalls that hinder social justice, recognizing neoliberal tendencies of behavioral solutions, and crafting ideas about how to circumvent them. 

Rethinking Voter Preferences: A New Approach to Understanding Election Day Choices: 

Take a look at how the results of a discrete choice experiment can shape our understanding of how people actually make decisions in situations as impactful as the voting booth. 

1. Greenfeld, L. and Nisbet, . Robert A. (2024, July 25). Social science. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science
2. NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. (n.d.). Significance of the doll test in Brown v. Board of Education. NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. https://www.naacpldf.org/brown-vs-board/significance-doll-test/ 
3. Benedict Carey, K. (2015, August 27). Many psychology findings not as strong as claimed, study says. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/08/28/science/psychology-studies-redid.html
4. McLeod, S. (2023, October 16). What are collectivistic cultures? Simply Psychology.  https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-are-collectivistic-cultures
5. McLeod, S. (2018). The Hawthorne effect. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/hawthorne-effect.html
6. Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Social science. Wikipedia. Retrieved August 20, 2024 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
7. Academy of Social Sciences. (2021). What is social science? Academy of Social Sciences. Retrieved August 20, 2024, from https://acss.org.uk/what-is-social-science/