Modeling of Behavior

Think back to when you were little. You may have seen your mom put on lipstick and tried to get into her makeup drawer to put lipstick on yourself. Or maybe you watched your teacher demonstrate how to solve a math equation and copied the procedure down in your notebook.

In these instances, you were trying to replicate a behavior by learning from a model. We often learn through observing other people, especially as children. But, learning through modeling does persist throughout our lives. For example, in a yoga class, the instructor will demonstrate the pose and flow for you to then follow. This technique is also common in organizational settings. When starting a new job, you might spend time shadowing a colleague to understand how to perform your responsibilities.

It doesn’t have to be formal. Everywhere we go, we are looking at other people for cues on how we should behave. Sometimes we subconsciously model behavior without being told to imitate it; other times, we are directed to observe a behavior closely to replicate it. 

We also alter our behavior based on the values and norms of those around us. For instance, If your parents value education and you often see them reading books or listening to podcasts, you might also adopt those values—modeling after them. Social norms impact us in this way too. For example, in Japan, it is considered rude to accept a phone call while on a train. If you find yourself visiting and notice that no one is on their phone, this would signal the local norms, prompting you to imitate the behavior. In contrast, if you live in Canada or the US, where speaking on the phone on transportation is common, you are likely to model that behavior as well.

Traditionally, there are four steps involved in the modeling of behavior¹:

1. Attention. To learn a new behavior, you have to be paying attention to the model performing it. Without focused attention, learning will not occur effectively.
2. Retention. After you’ve noticed a behavior, to replicate it, you have to remember the observed behavior. This involves encoding the behavior in memory so it can be recalled later.
3. Reproduction. You must have the physical and mental ability to perform the observed behavior. (Just because you see someone at the gym deadlift 300 pounds does not mean you have the strength or skill to reproduce that behavior—at least not without training!)
4. Motivation. You have to have a reason to replicate the behavior. Motivation can come from external rewards, intrinsic satisfaction, or the expectation of positive outcomes. For example, if you notice that your friend scores really high on their math exams, you might be motivated to organize your notes in the same way they do.

Classical conditioning: A learning process where a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response. Over time, the neutral stimulus alone becomes capable of triggering that same natural response, even without the original stimulus.

Reinforcement Theory: a theory that suggests a behavior is encouraged or discouraged depending on the consequences that follow it. If you observe positive consequences following a behavior, you will be more motivated to repeat that behavior. 

Behaviorism: a psychological approach that focuses only on observable behavior and the environment. It is often tied to learning theory and posits that all behaviors are a response to environmental stimuli.³

Observational learning: a social learning process where a subject learns through watching a specific task or behavior performed by someone else.  

Social learning theory: a learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura in 1977 that states that most human behavior is learnt through observation.⁴

Self-efficacy: our confidence and belief in our ability to perform a behavior or task.

In the late 19th century, there was a greater interest in understanding how humans and other organisms learn. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, made a spontaneous discovery while researching the digestive functions of dogs. He noticed that the dogs started salivating when they saw the research assistant who delivered them food. Curious to see if this was a learnt response, Pavlov began ringing a bell before feeding the dogs. After they had been exposed repeatedly to the pairing of the neutral stimuli—a ringing bell—to the stimuli that elicited a natural response—food—the dogs began salivating when they heard the bell ringing alone. Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning laid the groundwork for understanding how behaviors can be learned through repetitive association, also known as classical conditioning.⁵

In the 1930s, B.F. Skinner took Pavlov’s theory a step further suggesting that behavior that is positively reinforced is more likely to be repeated. Using rats as his subjects, Skinner found that if food was dispensed after rats pushed a lever, they would continue to push the lever. Conversely when they push the lever and received no food, the behavior didn’t reoccur. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory demonstrated how behavior can be influenced and modified, setting the stage for social learning theory.⁶

Behaviorism was a dominant force up until the mid-20th century. What made the behaviorists so distinctive was their strong belief that human mind had little to no involvement in learning behavior. Instead, they suggested that humans were passive information processors just like other animals and organisms.⁷ What does that mean exactly? Behaviorists believed that learning was a direct consequence from interaction with the environment—echoing the importance of reinforcement and conditioning. 

In 1961, Albert Bandura, a Canadian-American psychologist, made a strong case for behaviorist theory through his Bobo Doll experiment. Bandura highlighted that humans are less passive than originally thought, proposing a cognitive mediating process that occurred between receiving the stimulus and forming a response. He suggested that, at this stage, learners actively think about the information they are receiving and make a conscious choice as to whether they will replicate the behavior or not. 

In the Bobo doll experiment, young children were divided into three groups. In the first group, children watched adult researchers physically and verbally abuse an inflatable clown doll. In the second group, children watched adult researchers exhibit non-aggressive behavior with the doll. Finally, the third group of children did not watch any adults interact with the doll. After observations had taken place, the children in each of the groups were left in a room with a few toys and the Bobo doll. Interestingly, the children who had observed aggressive behavior replicated that same aggressive behavior toward the doll, whereas the other two groups of children mostly ignored the doll and played with other toys. The children had observed adults and, in the case of the aggressive modeling, mimicked their behavior without the need for direct reinforcement or punishment.⁸ 

Later, in 1977, Bandura added that self-efficacy, the belief in one’s capacity to perform behaviors, was an important factor in social learning theory. If someone is confident they can control their behavior and is able to influence their environment, they are more likely to be motivated to perform that behavior. It was in the 1970s that Bandura outlined the four steps of behavior modeling which reflected his theory that humans actively process and evaluate behaviors rather than just absorb and replicate them.⁹

Ivan Pavlov

Pavlov is best known for his research on classical conditioning, where he demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus (the ringing of a bell) with a natural response to a different stimulus (salivating as a response to food) if they were paired together repeatedly.⁵ 

B.F. Skinner

An American behavioral psychologist, he developed reinforcement theory, also known as operant conditioning. Built on the principles of classical conditioning, reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is influenced by its consequences. If a behavior leads to a positive outcome, people are more likely to replicate it.⁶ 

Albert Bandura

Creator of social learning theory, Bandura suggested that human behavior is learned through observation. In his famous Bobo Doll experiment, he demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behavior by observing adults exhibiting these behaviors. Bandura testified in front of congressional committees that there are negative consequences to children observing these types of behavior, arguing that violence on television should be banned.⁷

Understanding that people learn through observation reminds us of the importance of modeling positive behaviors. For example, children’s television shows often feature plots that center around positive character development, conflict resolution, inclusivity, and principles of friendship.

On the flip side, behavior modeling can also promote negative behaviors, especially through media exposure. This is a particular concern when it comes to violent content in TV shows and video games. To prevent the normalization or encouragement of aggression, various policies and government regulations have been implemented to limit the amount and intensity of violence portrayed in these mediums, aiming to reduce its potential impact on viewers, especially younger audiences. Though the research is divisive, some policymakers have suggested that violent video games are the cause of violent behavior, as associations between violent game use and aggressive behaviors (like yelling and pushing) have been found.¹⁰

As modeling of behavior shows, social interaction is incredibly important in the learning and development process. Scaffolding was a concept introduced by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who stated that people that possess more knowledge on a subject or behavior are able to teach those with less knowledge through instruction, support, and guidance. Scaffolding has become quite a popular tool to support learning—it uses elements of behavior modeling while also allowing for creative exploration and discovery. Let’s say that a parent is looking to support their child in learning how to read. They can model the behavior, use visual prompts like phonic flash cards, sound out the start of words as a verbal cue, and praise their child when they correctly read a word or sentence.¹¹

Today, modeling is seen as a fundamental component of learning, and is leveraged across various fields, such as education, the workplace, sports, and therapy. In education, teachers use modeling to demonstrate skills and behaviors for students to imitate. In the workplace, new employees are often asked to shadow existing employees so they can learn from observing. In sports, athletes learn techniques by watching their coaches and more experienced players. In therapy, psychologists will use various methods to model behavior, such as role play or teaching coping mechanisms for clients to imitate to help them process their anxiety. 

While behavior modeling is a significant way that humans learn, to view all human behavior as solely a product of observation is reductionist—there are many other ways that we learn. 

When is it useful?

Certain fields may benefit more from integrating this type of learning in their program, such as doctors watching other doctors perform surgeries or athletes mimicking the moves of their coach. On the other hand, it isn’t always so useful, fields like philosophy or computer science rely on critical engagement with material. Behavior modeling may overemphasize observational learning while underestimating the importance of other, more cognitive, methods such as individual exploration, reflection, and experiential learning.

Nature versus nurture

Moreover, observational learning does not happen in isolation. Whether you replicate an observed behavior also depends on your personality, past experiences, and current circumstances. If you are naturally a shy person and observe a social butterfly at a party receiving positive feedback, you may not replicate that behavior due to social anxiety. Learning through observation is influenced and moderated by individual differences, both psychological and physical. 

Bandura inclusion of self-efficacy acknowledges that belief in one’s ability to perform a behavior influences whether they replicate it – which could include biological ability – it does not fully account for the complexities of how genetic factors and innate predispositions may interact with observational learning. To try and explain all behavior either as simply a product of our interaction with our environment or solely due to our genetic makeup does not account for the complexity of learning and human behavior, and it’s likely that behavior is a result of both nature and nurture. 

Modeling Behavior to Overcome Phobias

Phobias are extreme or persistent fears that are excessive or unrealistic, these can even prevent sufferers from functioning in their daily life. Phobias are sometimes the result of having a traumatic experience as a young child – if you were bit by a dog when you were young, you may now be very fearful of all dogs. 

In therapy, psychologists can use behavior modeling to help their patients overcome their phobias. By watching a therapist reacting positively to a stimulus or situation, such as a dog, someone is able to see and learn that they have no reason to fear the stimulus. A therapist may bring in a dog, play and pet it, and when the client sees that they were not bitten by the dog, they can slowly start to overcome their phobia.

After modeling behavior, therapists can then use reinforcement theory so that their patients start to associate the stimuli they fear (in this example, the dog), with a positive outcome. Perhaps they give their patient a reward when they pet the dog.¹²

The Positive Influence of Role Models on Self Efficacy of Athletes

Having a role model that we look up to can influence our behavior. When we are inspired by another person, we tend to want to be like them and, sometimes, imitate their behaviors. This is especially true in sports – most athletes have a role model they look up to, someone who is successful in their sport, which motivates them to replicate their skills, workout routine, or game strategy.

Researchers in South Korea's physical education department examined the effects of behavior modeling on adolescent athletes' behavior and self-efficacy. They surveyed 255 athletes registered with the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee, using an observational learning questionnaire. The athletes rated statements about how they use role models for learning, such as “I use modeling to understand how to perfectly perform a skill” or “I use observational learning through my role models to change how I perform a skill.” This helped assess the influence of role models on skill development and behavior.

The researchers found that most athletes replicated their role model’s behavior, and had a significant influence on their self-efficacy. By watching their role models perform a skill, adolescent athletes felt more confident that they too could perform the skill. This research demonstrates that role models have an important part to play in increasing the confidence of young athletes, and can be used as an effective tool to help athletes improve their skills.¹³

Nudging through Active Socialization

When you see your friend succeeding—whether in their personal, home, or work life—you are likely to emulate their behavior so that you can obtain the same results. In this article, Nathan Collet sat down with Ph.D of Decision Processes student Katie Mehr, to discuss whether prompting people to mimic a “life hack” their peer performs would be successful. 

The States of Change: How to Motivate, Facilitate, and Reinforce Desired Behaviors

Changing a habitual behavior can be difficult. We are creatures of habit, however, modeling behavior can be a powerful tool to get people to modify their behavior. In this article, Dr. Karine Lacroix explains how important motivation is to change behavior, as well as making it easy for people to facilitate the change in behavior, using her own journey of becoming an avid cyclist as a model. 

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