Imagine you’re seated next to an important leader—perhaps the CEO of a major company or even an influential political figure. You look over their shoulder and notice that they’re scrolling through some troubling conspiracy theories about the moon landing being fake. Rather than stopping to question the source of these posts or analyze the presented evidence, the leader acts on instinct, putting together a team of moon-landing deniers to spread awareness about this supposed “historical scam.” 

From this hypothetical example, we can already grasp the importance of critical thinking skills. Rather than impulsively jumping to conclusions, the leader could have reflected on the suspicious context in which the information was presented (in this case, an obscure site with anonymous posters) and assessed the validity of the theory while taking other sources into account. In situations like these, critical thinking skills can help us respond thoughtfully and appropriately to new information.

But what exactly is critical thinking anyway? At its core, critical thinking is all about actively evaluating information to make reasoned conclusions. Openness to new information, paired with consideration of multiple viewpoints, allows us to challenge our preconceived notions to refine our decision-making abilities. When presented with a controversial issue, a critical thinker will first assess evidence from different perspectives—a skill that's known as perspective-taking—before forming an opinion. They may also excel at metacognition, which involves reflecting on their own thought processes. This act of “thinking about what you’re thinking about” can help individuals improve their learning style, figuring out where they excel or may have blind spots.

Let’s unpack some of the core critical thinking skills and how they may flow from one to another.

1. Analysis: This is often the starting point where information is broken down to understand its components and relationships.
2. Evaluation: After analysis, assessing the credibility and relevance of the information helps determine its reliability.
3. Inference: Drawing logical conclusions follows evaluation, as it involves using the assessed information to form reasoned judgments.
4. Problem-Solving: With conclusions drawn, this step involves developing and applying solutions to address challenges based on the analysis and inferences.
5. Reflection: Reviewing the process comes after problem-solving to identify what was effective and where improvements can be made.
6. Metacognition: This skill is overarching, involving continuous monitoring and regulation throughout the entire critical thinking process to enhance learning and decision-making.

Where else do critical thinking skills apply besides debunking conspiracy theories? For many businesses, critical thinking equips organizations with the ability to navigate uncertainty and solve problems effectively, as well as come up with innovative solutions to any issues they encounter. In education, we hone our critical thinking skills to help us question, analyze, and defend the information we acquire. We often carry these skills for the rest of our lives and rely on these same techniques to distinguish fact from fiction (an increasingly important capability in a world riddled with fake news). Critical thinking skills also help us avoid impulsive decisions by considering the long-term consequences of different options. Essentially, these skills support us in every aspect of our lives!

Analysis: The process of studying something in detail, breaking down information into components to understand its structure. Critical thinkers use analysis to dissect arguments, identify key points, and connect relationships between ideas.

Evaluation: This skill involves assessing information's credibility, accuracy, and relevance. The evaluation process might mean scrutinizing potential evidence or sources and questioning any assumptions to determine the validity of the presented argument.

Inference: The ability to draw probable conclusions from evidence. Critical thinkers make inferences to form conclusions based on available information—even when not all details are disclosed.

Problem-Solving: The ability to develop and implement practical solutions to challenges by applying a structured approach. In critical thinking, this can mean identifying an issue's root causes, exploring potential solutions, and selecting the best course of action. 

Reflection: This skill involves thoughtfully reviewing one's prior thought processes and actions to assess their effectiveness. Through reflection, critical thinkers identify strengths and areas for improvement in their problem-solving approaches. 

Metacognition: Being aware of one’s mental approach, or in other words, thinking about what you’re thinking about. Critical thinkers engage in metacognition to monitor, regulate, and tighten their cognitive strategies—all helpful ways to boost decision-making.

Deductive Reasoning: A logical process that moves from general premises to specific conclusions. Deduction ensures takeaways follow a clear train of thought, playing a vital role in forming valid arguments.

Inductive Reasoning: While deductive reasoning moves from general to specific, inductive reasoning goes from specific to general and involves drawing probable conclusions from a set of observations. This is the process of making generalizations based on facts. 

Socratic Method: A learning strategy developed by the Greek philosopher Socrates. This questioning method involves a teacher asking a series of questions to challenge students’ assumptions and deepen their understanding, sparking a dialogue that fosters critical thinking.

Bias:  Systematic errors in thinking that deviate from rational judgment. Biases are usually the result of our brains attempting to simplify information processing, often resulting in poor decision-making. 

Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that support problem-solving and probability judgments. Although these generalizations reduce cognitive load and support immediate judgments, they can lead to irrational or inaccurate conclusions.

The concept of critical thinking has a long and rich history. Although the skill likely existed before any formal documentation, recorded evidence traces its roots back to ancient Greece. During this time, the Greek philosopher Socrates developed the rightfully named Socratic method—a practice centered on a series of probing questions that challenge assumptions. This approach’s emphasis on continuous inquiry laid the groundwork for future developments in philosophy, encouraging thinkers to evaluate ideas critically rather than accept them at face value. The Socratic method remains a cornerstone of critical thinking practices today, particularly in fields like behavioral science and psychology, where underlying assumptions must be carefully examined to understand human behavior.²

During the medieval and early modern periods, thinkers like René Descartes revolutionized critical thinking by analyzing the concept of doubt. His assertion, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am), reflects the centrality of rational thought in discerning truth and exemplifies the skill of inference in action.³ 

In the Enlightenment era, critical thinking was further propelled by scholars like Immanuel Kant and David Hume. These thinkers prioritized reason, objectivity, and skepticism—all of which can be considered critical thinking skills. In the 20th century, the philosopher John Dewey, who focused on the realm of education, began promoting an inquiry-based style of teaching and learning. This type of education model encouraged active participation and reflection—which makes sense given that Dewey’s work focused on the idea that education should foster the ability to think critically about information and experiences rather than simply getting students to memorize facts.⁴

In the late 1900s, standardized tests and teaching methods emerged as ways to specifically teach and assess critical thinking skills. Researcher Robert Ennis was one of the first to clearly define the concept, describing critical thinking as “reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do.”^4,5 He stressed that critical thinking encompasses an entire suite of skills, including interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation. Ennis then applied this definition to develop the Ennis-Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test, which is one of many standardized assessments aimed at formally testing these types of skills in students.⁵ 

Researcher Diane Halpern was also central in operationalizing critical thinking skills. Using Ennis’ working definition as a basis, Halpern developed the Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment (HCTA), which uses real-world scenarios to measure critical thinking skills. She also developed a teaching model known as Halpern’s Four-Part Model for Teaching Critical Thinking. Her work highlights the importance of metacognition (thinking about one's thinking) in critical thinking, as she argues that this type of awareness enables individuals to reflect on their thought processes and apply these skills in a variety of contexts.⁶ 

From the start of the digital age in the 1970s up until today, the need for critical thinking has only intensified. With the proliferation of constant information available at our fingertips, we’re now bombarded with data, much of which can be biased, misleading, or simply false. As humans, we’re already susceptible to cognitive biases like the confirmation bias, leading us to favor information that confirms our own opinions—and most algorithms only make this worse. Often, platforms can limit our news and social media feeds to information that fits into our preconceived beliefs (sometimes known as an echo chamber or the false consensus effect). All of this makes critical thinking in our digital era more pressing than ever before.⁶

Socrates

Greek philosopher from 470 BC who is credited with pioneering much of Western philosophy, including the Socratic Method, a method of questioning that encourages critical thinking by challenging assumptions.²

René Descartes

French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician whose questioning method laid the groundwork for the modern scientific method. In his famous work Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), Descartes questioned everything that could not be logically proven.³

John Dewey

An American philosopher and psychologist, Dewey was a prominent figure in the development of critical thinking theory, particularly within the field of education. His work emphasized reflective thinking and the importance of democracy.⁴

Immanuel Kant

As an Enlightenment-era thinker, Kant’s work, particularly in Critique of Pure Reason (1781), emphasizes the importance of rationality in human knowledge. Although later scholars would question his definition of “rationality,” his work posited that individuals must critically evaluate how their experiences shape their understanding of the world.⁴

Robert Ennis

A researcher of the late 20th century whose work focused on defining and operationalizing critical thinking skills. He developed the Ennis-Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test, which assesses individuals' abilities to apply critical thinking skills. This test has helped educators by offering a structured approach to measuring critical thinking and helped in identifying specific cognitive processes necessary for effective analysis and reasoning.⁵

Diane Halpern

A researcher who proposed that critical thinking is a teachable skill set rather than an innate ability that can be strengthened through targeted education. Her Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment (HCTA) uses real-world scenarios to measure critical thinking skills and her teaching model, known as Halpern’s Four-Part Model for Teaching Critical Thinking, aims to teach students not only how to think critically but also to become aware of when and how to apply these skills effectively.⁶

Critical thinkers are better equipped to evaluate information, make reasoned decisions, and navigate the complexities of modern life—especially in the academic and professional spheres. In education, these skills enhance problem-solving abilities, fostering curiosity and intellectual independence. In the workplace, critical thinking is highly valued for its role in innovation, strategic planning, and risk management.

Education 

Most would agree that the primary goal of education is not only for students to learn facts but to learn how to learn facts—which, of course, involves thinking critically. The majority of universities expect students in all disciplines to demonstrate these skills.⁷ This shared emphasis reflects a broad consensus that critical thinking is essential for students’ academic success and future contributions to society. For example, the World Federation for Medical Education recognizes critical thinking as a standard of medical training, highlighting its role in professional competency.⁷

One specific critical thinking skill that can be developed through classroom practice is metacognition, or the ability to reflect on one's own thinking processes. As students become aware of their own assumptions, they can better monitor their thinking, identify potential pitfalls, and make more informed decisions. This is crucial for students as they encounter a plethora of new information inside and outside the classroom, some of which may be biased, one-sided, or even purposely misleading.⁵

Research also suggests that perspective-taking—the capacity to consider different viewpoints and understand others' experiences—is essential in stimulating critical thinking.⁶ By seeking out diverse outlooks, students can begin to question their own beliefs and consider alternative interpretations, leading to a deeper and more nuanced understanding of complex issues. For example, students in history or political science classes often take part in debate simulations. When forced to take on the role of someone with an ideology very different from their own, the nuances of certain highly contested issues may become more clear. 

Developing critical thinking skills like metacognition or perspective-taking is essential for success—both within academia and afterward. While traditional teaching methods may fall short in this area, turning to active learning techniques can help students develop these vital skills. By incorporating these principles into educational practices, institutions can empower students to become more effective thinkers and, eventually, contributors to society.

The Professional World

After our schooling days are over, critical thinking continues to be highly sought after in the professional world. If you’ve interviewed for a job recently, you may have been asked certain hypothetical or situation-based questions aimed at assessing your critical thinking skills; employers across a variety of fields prioritize these types of strengths in potential employees that are necessary for navigating workplace complexities. More and more, companies are searching beyond hard skills, looking for broader competencies like communication, teamwork, and the ability to adapt to new challenges.^5,6

In the modern professional landscape, the evolution of technology is rapid, the influx of new information is constant, and the global economy is increasingly interconnected. To handle these challenges, professionals need to be adaptable—ready to evaluate options and make sound judgments in even the most ambiguous situations. When organizations provide opportunities for individuals to develop and refine these skills, this critical thinking culture can enhance productivity, innovation, and overall success.⁷

Critical thinking itself is about using a wider lens to analyze complex topics, recognizing both the upsides and downsides that come with anything. Developing critical thinking skills can be challenging, particularly in a world that’s becoming potentially over-reliant on new technology. Let’s look at some of the barriers individuals face when developing critical thinking techniques. 

Traditional Teaching

Traditional teaching methods may hinder critical thinking development. Some critics express concern that conventional, teacher-centered approaches, like the typical college lectures, may not be conducive to fostering critical thinking skills. This concern aligns with the observation that students from educational traditions that emphasize certainty and authority may struggle with aspects of critical thinking that require independent thought. To address this challenge, some educators advocate for more active learning methods that encourage student participation, collaboration, and critical engagement with the material.⁹

While teaching critical thinking skills is crucial, there are many potential barriers that can hinder students' ability to apply those skills effectively in real-world situations. For example, students may lack the foundational skills or the dispositional qualities needed to engage in critical thinking effectively. These kinds of gaps in intrinsic student motivation or ability can be harder to address.⁸ 

Students may also have limited understanding of how we establish what “knowledge” is in the first place, and the role of evidence in justifying beliefs. This can make them vulnerable to accepting unsubstantiated claims or relying on intuition rather than reasoned judgment. Similarly, students may rely on intuitive judgment, often driven by emotions, which can lead to flawed reasoning and inaccurate conclusions. They may struggle to recognize their own biases or to consider alternative perspectives objectively. All of these barriers complicate teachers’ ability to teach critical thinking skills, especially in a classroom where students may have vastly different levels of interest in or natural inclination towards critical analysis skills.⁹

Teachers can support students by offering opportunities for students to dig into their own biases through role-simulation exercises, which may be more engaging for some students. If students are given an opportunity to reflect on their own experiences, and given a judgment-free space to unpack their thoughts, they may feel more empowered to reflect on other topics of discussion. This is part of why it’s important for schools to provide safe spaces for students to ask questions and encourage thoughtful discussion or even disagreement; if students can learn to question, investigate, and substantiate their own claims in the classroom, they will be better at critically analyzing new information in their future outside the classroom. 

Artificial Intelligence

There are several concerns surrounding AI’s role in critical thinking, particularly in terms of how AI systems themselves lack human reasoning, operating based on machine learning that might reinforce biases rather than challenge them. Algorithms are trained on data, and if that data reflects human prejudices—such as gender, racial, or socioeconomic biases—AI can perpetuate or even amplify these issues. For example, algorithmic bias in hiring tools may lead to discriminatory practices despite the appearance of fairness.¹¹ Thus, if AI isn’t able to think critically for itself, the systems may not recognize their own biases and may not be able (or even attempt) to correct their own shortcomings in this area.

Not only does AI fall short in its own critical thinking skills, but there’s also a risk that reliance on AI might reduce critical thinking in humans through a process known as cognitive offloading. As AI systems increasingly make decisions for us—whether it’s suggesting news articles, deciding what recipes to make, or determining medical treatments—there’s a concern that humans may become passive consumers of information rather than actively questioning, analyzing, and reflecting on the decisions AI makes. We can see this effect not just in the general output of our ideas but in the thought process itself, as we increasingly rely on AI to generate ideas for us and remember information on our behalf—a concept known as the Google Effect. This could decrease cognitive engagement and diminish our capacity to critically evaluate information, leading to a potential decline in cognitive flexibility.¹¹

Furthermore, AI’s role in critical thinking raises ethical concerns about accountability. When AI systems make decisions, such as determining creditworthiness or predicting criminal behavior, the lack of transparency in algorithms (sometimes called the "black box" problem) poses a major challenge. If algorithms make incorrect or biased decisions, it is often unclear who is responsible—is it the creators of the AI, the data inputs, or the users themselves? Critics argue that ethical considerations must guide the development of AI systems, ensuring they support critical thinking without undermining ethical decision-making.

So what do we do about this? While AI can help sort through large datasets or simulate potential outcomes based on decision-making models, it lacks human intuition and the ability to consider context, emotions, and ethical judgments. Many behavioral scientists emphasize that AI should be used to support, rather than replace, human critical thinking, as humans have the unique capacity to reflect on moral, social, and psychological factors that AI cannot fully grasp.¹¹

Critical Thinking in Medical Students

A recent study in the Journal of Education and Health Promotion explored how to use case-based learning (CBL) to stimulate the critical thinking skills and creativity of medical students. The researchers challenged first-year medical students to create and present their own case studies rather than relying solely on prepared materials. This approach, grounded in the idea that active learning promotes higher-order cognitive skills, aimed to enhance students’ understanding of complex medical concepts and encourage them to think more critically.¹²

This study focused on the biochemical aspects of three common conditions: type II diabetes, iron deficiency anemia, and obstructive jaundice. The students, working in small groups, developed case studies that included presenting complaints (medical speak for the symptoms), the laboratory findings for the patients, and five discussion questions. Then, these student-generated cases were reviewed by a facilitator and presented to other groups for discussion. 

The researchers found that the young med students actively engaged with the material they’d created and the material created by their peers, leading to in-depth discussions on clinical presentations, treatment options, and interpretation of lab results. The success of assignments like this demonstrates how active learning techniques can be incorporated into education to encourage critical thinking. 

In this example, having to create case studies required students to extend their critical thinking skills in a variety of ways. First, they had to analyze concept to understand the underlying biochemical principles of the chosen conditions. Next, they had to interpret data, making sense of laboratory findings and relating them to clinical presentations. Then, they applied knowledge, using their understanding to develop realistic case scenarios and relevant discussion questions. Finally, the teamwork component helped students learn how to effectively communicate by articulating their reasoning to their peers.¹²

The success of this active-participation approach suggests that moving beyond passive learning and encouraging students to become active in knowledge creation can be a powerful way to foster critical thinking skills, which is certainly a valuable trait in aspiring medical professionals. 

Critical Thinking and Personal Well-Being

Researchers Carlos Saiz and Silvia F. Rivas propose that critical thinking goes beyond helping us make valuable judgments—it is essential to our personal well-being.¹⁰

To demonstrate the impact of critical thinking on our daily lives, the researchers proposed a causal model that links critical thinking, personal well-being, and lifelong formation. In other words, the ability to identify the root causes of problems, develop solutions that directly address those causes, and then take action to implement those solutions is crucial to our well-being. Go figure!

The model takes into account various environmental and personal factors that can influence these variables and acknowledges that many of these concepts are interconnected. Ultimately, Saiz and Rivas’ work emphasizes the importance of moving beyond observation and engaging in what they call “causal simulation,” which involves imagining counterfactual events and constructing causal scenarios to test different hypotheses and refine one’s understanding of a situation. They suggest that this ability to think counterfactually, often referred to as “what if” thinking, is a key component of critical thinking and can help individuals make more informed choices and avoid potential pitfalls. 

Fortunately for those who feel they may lack innate critical thinking skills, Saiz and Rivas also suggest that these skills can be developed through lifelong learning. Instead of relying solely on abstract concepts or preparing for every hypothetical scenario, focusing on acquiring fundamental critical thinking skills can help people apply them to real-world problems down the road. Practicing these skills in real life, when the consequences are tangible and meaningful, can be more effective than any traditional pedagogical approaches that emphasize rote learning or standardized testing. Instead, learning should be driven by curiosity, a sense of purpose, and a desire to make a difference in the world.¹⁰

Finally, Saiz and Rivas discuss the role of motivation and emotion in critical thinking. They acknowledge that while motivation is important for initiating action, it’s not always sufficient to sustain effort or ensure success. Instead, they suggest that intrinsic interest and a genuine desire to achieve a goal are more powerful motivators than external pressure or a sense of obligation. They ultimately conclude that critical thinking, when understood as a tool for problem-solving and personal growth, can be a powerful force for achieving well-being and living a more fulfilling life.¹⁰

Getting Schooled by Artificial Intelligence: How to use AI to improve classroom learning 

Artificial Intelligence has had a huge impact on classroom learning, and its presence still poses a threat to important critical thinking skill development. Read this piece on AI in the classroom to learn more about some for the benefits of using AI in schools. 

Content Analysis 

Content analysis is a research technique which relies on researchers’ ability to think critically and systematically analyze the content of communication. Read this piece to learn more about the content analysis process, its role in qualitative research, and how critical thinking components are used in real-world research techniques. 

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